The city was burned down in the Chaitra fire
That night I was sleeping,
I didn’t know when you came.
The sky was dark with clouds
There were tears in Jochna’s eyes.
The birds of the forest flew away
The silent night was just a cry.
That night, I was sleeping,
I didn’t know when you came
The city burned down in the Chaitra fire
Sad girl’s heart,
I was asleep,
I didn’t look back
The main principles of the division of words into categories in the language under study
Student of Andijan State Institute of Foreign Languages
Abdullajonova Rayhona Arabjon qizi
Abdullajonovarayhona874@gmail.com
+998886630603
Scientific Supervisor: Odina Ismanova
ANNOTATION. Die Klassifikation von Wörtern in Wortarten spielt eine zentrale Rolle beim Spracherwerb, insbesondere beim Erlernen der deutschen Sprache. Diese Arbeit untersucht die grundlegenden Prinzipien der Wortartenzuordnung im Deutschen unter Berücksichtigung didaktischer, linguistischer und kognitiver
Aspekte. Besonderes Augenmerk gilt der Bedeutung von grammatischen und semantischen Merkmalen sowie der Rolle des Kontextes beim Lernprozess.
Annotation. The classification of words into parts of speech is crucial in language acquisition, especially when learning German. This paper examines the core principles of word categorization in German, taking into account didactic, linguistic, and cognitive aspects. Special attention is paid to the importance of grammatical and semantic features, as well as the role of context in the learning process.
SCHLÜSSELWÖRTER: Wortarten, Sprachdidaktik, Deutsch als Fremdsprache, Grammatik, Sprachlernen, Semantik, Syntax
KEYWORDS: Parts of speech, language didactics, German as a foreign language, grammar, language learning, semantics, syntax
In the process of learning a language, the ability to correctly understand words and divide them into categories is one of the main competencies for the learner.
Especially when learning German, correctly distinguishing parts of speech (Wortarten) is important for improving language structure and clarity. Each word belongs to a certain category according to its meaning, form and function in the sentence. This article analyzes the linguistic, didactic and cognitive framework for word categories in the case of the German language. It also discusses the challenges
encountered in the learning process, ways to overcome them and effective teaching strategies.
1. The concept of Wortarten and its necessity. There are 10 main categories of words in German: Substantiv (noun), Verb (verb), Adjective (adjective), Adverb (ravish), Artikel (article), Pronomen (pronoun), Numerale (number), Präposition (preposition), Konjunktion (connective), Interjektion (vowel). These categories of
words differ according to their mutual meaning, morphological and syntactic signs.
For example, nouns always change with gender, number and verbs, respectively, according to person, tense and date.
2. Criteria for the separation of parts of speech. Formal criteria: By means of these criteria, a category is determined on the basis of the appearance of a word, that is, its morphological forms (flexions). For example, words ending in the suffixes “-heit, -keit, -ung” are considered Substantiv: “Schönheit”, “Bewegung”. Semantic criteria:
Based on the meaning of a word, it can be divided into a specific category.
For example, action words (gehen, sprechen) are usually verb. Syntactic criteria: Determined on the basis of the place of a word in a sentence and its relationship with other words. For example, nouns are most often accompanied by the article: “Der Hund”, “Ein Buch”.
3. Problems that arise in the learning process. For those who are learning, the German flexion system may seem quite complicated. Some words can be used in more than one category:
“Laufen” (verb): I run every morning.
“Das Laufen” (noun): Running is fun.
In addition, the meaning and category change depending on the context:
“Good” (adjective): a good person
“Good” (adverb): It tastes good
4. Didactic approaches. In learning German, you can increase the effectiveness of the teaching of parts of speech through didactic methods. The following approaches are particularly important:
Thematic approach: Words are selected based on topics
that are relevant to the students’ interest (e.g., “Friendship”, “Sports”, “Family”) and they are taught in context. With this approach, the student learns vocabulary on the basis of semantic groups. Gramma-based approach: The morphological features of each word group (e.g., the arrival with an article, the change of the verb with tenses)
are explained consistently. This approach allows you to thoroughly master German grammar.
Communicative Approach: Words are taught through real-life
conversations, dialogue, and role-playing. This method ensures the active participation of students and helps in the practical application of grammatical knowledge.
Visual Approach: Words are explained using pictures, diagrams, and
diagrams. This is especially effective for readers whose visual perception is strong.
Teaching via Interactive Technologies: Conducting interactive exercises, online tests, and simulation classes using multimedia tools will engage students in the classroom.
Integrative Approach: New words are taught in a way that is integrated with listening comprehension, reading, writing, and speaking competencies. This approach harmonizes activities in four languages.
5. Analysis by Case Studies. The following words are used in different categories based on context:
“Because” (conjunction): I’m staying at home because it’s raining.
“Weile” (noun): After a while he came back.
“Noch” (adverb): I still have time.
“Still” (particle): It’s even bigger than I thought.
6. Cognitive Approach and Psycholinguistic Factors. The use of schematic theory, chunking and input flood methods in dividing phrases into groups according to the process of memorization and comprehension of learners is effective. In particular, perception through sight and hearing (multimodal input) increases efficiency.
Correct recognition of parts of the German language and solid handling, play an important role in improving the language competence of the learner. Through parts of speech, the grammatical construction of the language becomes understandable, the possibility of clear expression becomes possible in the construction of sentences and speech development. A harmonious application of interactive, thematic, grammatical and communicative approaches in the learning process increases the motivation of the students.
Also, working with words that have multiple meanings and context, teaching them in a practical way in the classroom will serve to
thoroughly master the language. It is important for teachers to use modern didactic methods, to use multimodal approaches in the lessons, to offer assignments that enable students to think independently and perform grammatical analysis. Teaching
strategies based on comprehension through logical connections and context, not just memorization, give higher results. In conclusion, a deep understanding of parts of speech develops not only grammatical knowledge, but also communicative skills and makes the process of mastering the language effective.
REFERENCES
1. Duden – The Grammar. 9th edition. Mannheim: Dudenverlag, 2016.
2. Helbig, G./Buscha, J. (2010): German Grammar. Ein Handbuch für den
Ausländerunterricht. Langenscheidt.
3. Eisenberg, P. (2013): Grundriss der deutschen Grammatik. Stuttgart: Metzler.
4. Zifonun, Gisela et al. (1997): Grammar of the German Language. de Gruyter.
5. Hentschel, Elke / Weydt, Harald (2002): Deutsche Grammatik. Berlin: de Gruyter.
6. Durrell, Martin (2011): Hammer’s German Grammar and Usage. Routledge.
7. Thurmair, Maria (2013): Exercises on German Grammar. Hueber Verlag.
Beyond A Reasonable Doubt
He was the newly polished diamond like the one soon-to-be lost ring dropped between sideboard and mattress
His teeth were straighter and polished whiter than his Grady White and sleeker than his smooth Armani suit and lawyer-ease
Wouldn’t she find a six-figure
attorney a quiet listener and a pleaser of womankind by nature
So she thought a man with means would welcome someone more substantial than a summer fling a bartender hip to rap and conversation who was yet an articulate university graduate like himself and a soon-to-be pharmacist worthy of his status
A trustworthy attorney might be the catch of the day one evening
on Federal Hill so she thought
Though she found him engaging on various subjects unavailable to twenty-year old boys she was used to dating
His knowledge of wine lists 401k’s and luxurious getaways
in the Caribbean and hidden hideaways was more superior than her own father’s experience
Though he proved to be lost in his own pleasures riding into her body’s erogenous zones and no less uncaring than the fumbling boys of her university dorm
When the ring was lost after
less than a half hour of grunting blindness and hip grinding she surely was perplexed that he may have been no champion of foreplay and ethical manners and was only a rich swindler and pretender
Authorities took down the information two days later and a nurse unwrapped the rape kit that sent his world spiraling into debt and infamy
Would there be another political campaign?
His corporate lawyer job was lost
to gossip and media shaming along with the Grady White sold to pay for the hot shot female Boston defender
Tennis would we played not at the private men’s club if even that now as his friends kept finding other engagements
In the end he found his freedom more precious than the open sea
crying like a kindergartener on their first day when he was acquitted
And she found her slimmed down frame left the found diamond looser than before when inexplicably it had somehow slipped off her finger on that Tinder rather than tender night
And the jury who had only hearsay of the prosecution lawyer’s dramatics to go by and no DNA no security camera footage to convict her Tinder date of her intoxication and lack of consent
The jury would wonder was she wiser in the ways of modern hooking up now or frightened into depression never to overcome anorexia and trauma
to find love.
Widow At The Council On Aging
Her father’s ghost is always circling like a butterfly ready to alight on a round table with miss seventy-eight year old widow showing up uninvited to the noon time meal which is usually a meat product splashed with gravy that a vegan like herself cannot eat
She has a newly self-published book out that again has her child of innocence praising her fathers musicianship and kindness
This may all be true like a President being more sainted than Mother Teresa in the vanity of illusions that memory reshapes into a variety of wildflowers that will await her in heaven as the face of her butterfly father hovers above our unholy heads
What I found most surprising though was her unthinkable story of her eleven year old self babysitting a chimpanzee in the infield of a race track
The chimp was the pet of one of the hairdressers for the famous Rockettes who kicked up a lot of gossip and pheromones behind the scenes around the saxophone player her father who was evidently as spotless as she remembers
After A Bourgeois Marriage
I was no Kerouac not one of those beaten journeying authors of miraculous encounters in the night neither of risk nor meager means except with their wits traveling west like thrift shop hobos of stream of consciousness devices.
My own divine madness would sit reading and never cross the high plains on a locomotive nor settle into a commune of ocean bathers in the jagged movie theater that is the dreamland of underachievers and panhandlers and religious fanatics.
Ironically I have found the egg over easy comfort of a single bed without a companion to wish a goodnight to in the dark and it’s more tedious than an unpublished diary manuscript of fantasies from a lionhearted drunk.
Learning through movement and stories
Student of Andijan State Institute of Foreign Languages
Abdullajonova Rayhona Arabjon qizi
Abdullajonovarayhona874@gmail.com
+998886630603
Scientific Supervisor: Isamutdinova Durdona
Annotation.The article explores the benefits of learning through movement and stories in the educational process. It sheds light on how physical activity and narrative elements promote children’s learning, both on a cognitive, social and emotional level. Movement stories combine the learning of content with active participation, which promotes the holistic development of the children.
Annotation.Der Artikel untersucht die Vorteile des Lernens durch Bewegung und Geschichten im Bildungsprozess. Er beleuchtet, wie körperliche Aktivität und narrative Elemente das Lernen von Kindern fördern, sowohl auf kognitiver als auch auf sozialer und emotionaler Ebene. Bewegungsgeschichten verbinden das Erlernen von Inhalten mit aktiver Teilnahme, wodurch eine ganzheitliche Entwicklung der Kinder gefördert wird.
Schlüsselwörter.Bewegungsgeschichten, Lernen durch Bewegung, kognitive Entwicklung, soziale Fähigkeiten, motorische Förderung, Erzählmethoden, frühkindliche Bildung
Keywords. Movement stories, learning through movement, cognitive development, social skills, motor development, storytelling methods, early childhood education
In modern pedagogy, the combination of movement and stories is increasingly coming to the fore. It is known that children not only expand their knowledge through physical activity and stories, but also improve their physical and social skills. Especially in early childhood, this method can support learning in a playful and motivating way. The article aims to show how movement and stories can be effectively integrated into the learning process to foster deep, long-term understanding while supporting emotional and social development.
1. The theoretical foundations of learning by action. For children, the importance of action is enormous. Firstly, movement is an important part of not only the development of muscles, but also many mental and emotional processes, i.e. the development of thinking, memory, concentration, language, etc. For younger children, physical activity also helps activate their brain’s neural networks, which in turn enhances children’s ability to learn. The part of the brain related to movement, especially the motor cortex, is improved by children performing their physical movements, and this has a direct impact on their learning process. Research shows that physical activity helps a child achieve more success in any educational process.
Exercise makes it easier for children to absorb new information, as new neural connections are formed in the child’s mind during the movement. For example, children can develop their skills through dance, sports, or simple exercise. On the other hand, movements also develop a child’s important social competencies, as children often participate in physical activities together, which develops their social skills, interactions, and teamwork skills. Children’s physical movements also develop their spatial perception. Physical activities, such as running, jumping, going around a cliff, expand children’s spatial imaginations. Children learn to perceive the spatial environment, for example, concepts such as high and low, front and back, are more clearly formed. At the same time, physical movements develop a child’s sense of the body and his ability to self-control.
2. Learning through storytelling. Learning through stories is an effective way for kids to broaden their horizons. Stories not only develop children’s language, but also help their mental development. Through storytelling, children learn logical thinking, analyze events, and identify connections between them. Each story is a new experience and opportunity to learn for a child. Stories increase children’s vocabulary as they learn new words, phrases and grammar rules.
In addition, stories provide children with social and emotional learning. Children feel connected to the characters in the events, feel with them. This will encourage them to empathize, to understand the feelings of others. Stories, in particular, help children learn complex concepts. For example, abstract concepts such as time, space, cause and effect are more clearly understood by children through the story. Also, the stories help to have a better understanding of the child’s emotions and emotional state. Children learn to empathize with others, show respect for their feelings by listening or reading stories.
Through the story, the child’s ability to imagine himself or herself as another person develops, which encourages them to grow physically and emotionally.
3. Moving Stories: An Integrated Learning Method. Moving stories are a way for children to learn through storytelling combined with action. This method requires active participation of the child and provides not only mental, but also physical development. For example, a child can learn more deeply by performing actions related to a story or event. In this, the child understands the content of the story through physical movements and forms his own opinion.
Action stories help children explore a variety of topics. For example, a child’s teaching method might use a story called “The Tiger and His Encounter with Animals.” In this story, the boy participates in the story as his protagonist and finds other animals through actions. Through the connection of actions with the content of the story, children quickly master the topic and integrate their physical and mental activities. Action stories not only develop children’s motor development, but also their teamwork and collaboration skills. Many action stories require group work, so children learn to work together, to collaborate with others.
4. The benefits of action stories. Cognitive Development: Action stories help a child’s cognitive development immensely. When actions become part of the story, the child not only passively listens to the story, but actively experiences the development of events. This process activates the child’s mind, facilitates the assimilation of new knowledge, and develops logical thinking. Studies show that children retain the information they learn through movements much more robustly.
This creates a comprehensive learning experience, especially for children.
Motor Development: Every great story has a huge impact on children’s motor development.
For example, children learn skills such as jumping, running, dancing, doing physical games through action stories. It not only increases their strength, but also has a positive effect on their physical development. Movements develop not only the baby’s muscles, but also the ability to adapt to changing conditions. At the same time, it improves the child’s own body movement and his interaction with the objects around him.
Social and Emotional Development Action stories are an effective tool for children to develop mutual social connections. During the movements, children help each other, work on each other, which strengthens their social competencies.
Participating in activities together with others teaches a child important emotional and social skills, such as empathy, patience, and respect. Thanks to this method, children learn to empathize with each other, to properly orient relationships with others.
5. Application to the educational process. To effectively incorporate action stories into the educational process, teachers must carefully plan this technique and adapt them to the age of the children. Teachers, when implementing action stories in the classroom or kindergarten, should strive to capture the child’s interest. The addition of action to the story improves students’ ability to self-regulate and increases physical activity. It is imperative that teachers choose actions in accordance with the content of the story and monitor the cognitive, motor, and social development of children through the movements.
Learning methods through action and stories contribute greatly to the overall development of children. Thanks to this method, children not only master information, but also develop their motor, cognitive and social skills. Through action stories, children actively learn, think, and realize their feelings. Also, this method leads to the development of an active and sincere dialogue between the child and the teacher.
Action stories can play an important role in the pedagogical process because they motivate children, helping to make their learning process interesting and effective. Therefore, action stories should be widely used in the education system in the future.
References
1. Koller, M. (2019). Movement and Learning: Theory and Practice of Physical
Education. Beltz.
2. Sielmann, M. (2016). Movement stories in everyday kindergarten life. Cornelsen
Verlag.
3. Richter, J. (2017). Narrative bodies: Movement promotion and language
development in early childhood education. Klett learning training.
4. Müller, A. (2018). Creative movement stories for kindergarten. GRIN Verlag.
5. Hoffmann, U. (2020). Learning through movement and language: An integrative
approach to early childhood. Knight.
6. Becker, P. (2015). Children and Exercise: How Movement Activities Promote
Child Development. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
7. Schmidt, S. (2014). Pedagogical promotion of physical activity in primary school.
Klett Cotta.
RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHERS ABOUT MUSIC
(Historical excursus)
Abstract
The article examines the dynamics of Russian philosophers’ ideas about music. In this regard, the status of Russian philosophy and its distinctive face are being clarified. Russian philosophy is shown to be based on Byzantine philosophical and mystical traditions, but at the same time embodies the basic tenet of Russian culture (Russianness): the affirmation of spirituality as a moral achievement – serving creation and resisting destruction (annihilation). Russian philosophy phenomenon is defined in accordance with the stated attitude of Russian culture. It is argued that Russian philosophy is the solution to the moral problem of victory over death. Russian philosophers study the peculiarities of the development of the interpretation of music by Russian philosophers in the context of this understanding of Russian philosophy. It is stated that during the development of this interpretation, music was increasingly recognized by Russian philosophers as the most powerful means of defeating death, moreover, as evidence of the possibility of victory over death.
Keywords: Russian philosophy, music, spirituality, man, world, God.
What is Russian philosophy?
The question of Russian philosophy is not an easy one. Let us try to figure it out.
Initially, it is significant to say that Russian philosophy is inextricably linked with Orthodoxy. Russian philosophers constantly emphasized this connection. Let us at least refer to the statement of V.V. Zenkovsky: “Russian thought has always (and forever) remained connected with its religious element, with its religious soil; here was and remains the main root of the originality… of Russian philosophical thought” [30, p. 18].
Today, in Russian philosophical literature, there is a clear idea that the connection of Russian philosophy with Orthodoxy (“with its religious element”) does not indicate its originality: Russian philosophy is permanently connected with Western philosophy, and is a stage of its development (1). On what basis is this point of view put forward?
Authors who adhere to this approach believe that Russian philosophy interacts not with canonical, strict Orthodoxy but with its innermost deep core, which is Gnosticism. For example, as I.I. Evlampiev stated, “the constant attraction of Russian philosophy and all Russian culture to the Gnostic worldview does not raise any doubts. This fact has not received due recognition in the literature for a long time only due to the established tendency characteristic of church and Orthodox-oriented authors” [3, p. 9].
Such scientists believe that the Gnostic mentality was intensively strengthened in the West, starting from the late Middle Ages: Bernard of Clairvaux, Meister (Johann) Eckhart, etc., and hence, Russian philosophy is connected with Western philosophy. But what is Gnosticism?
Gnosticism is a complex and not fully defined phenomenon. According to the German-American philosopher Hans Jonas, an authority in this field, “we can speak of Gnostic schools, sects and cults, Gnostic works and teachings, Gnostic myths and speculations, and even of Gnostic religion” [7, pp. 47-48]. Jonas concludes that Gnosticism is a kind of fusion of Hellenistic philosophy and Eastern sources while noting that “in general, …the thesis about the Eastern (Oriental) origin of Gnosticism has an advantage over… that is Hellenic” [7, p. 49].
Thus, Gnosticism is respectively a mysticism that came from the East. What is mysticism?
Mysticism is a set of ideas about the direct connection of a person with sacred principles [21]. Such a connection provides a person with a breakthrough from the earthly, corruptible world into the Divine, imperishable world and thereby deliverance from the earthly world, a way out of it.
Mysticism underlies all religions (famous researchers of mysticism point out this in their works: E. Underhill, R. Otto, S. Katz, K. Schmidt and others), but especially Orthodoxy as the Eastern Church. Moreover, in Orthodoxy, mysticism essentially merges with canonical theology.
So, according to V.N. Lossky, “Eastern tradition has never made a sharp distinction between mysticism and theology, between… the experience of knowing the Divine mysteries and the dogmas approved by the Church” [20, p. 208].
In Orthodoxy, hesychasm primarily represents mysticism.
The birthplace of hesychasm is Byzantium. The most famous Byzantine Hesychasts are Sts. Macarius of Egypt, Diadochos of Photicus, Gregory of Sinaite, Isaac the Syrian, Gregory Palamas. Based on Byzantine hesychasm, hesychasm began to develop in Russia. Therefore, V.N. Lossky’s statement is absolutely correct that “Russian Christianity is of Byzantine origin” and has with it the homogeneous character of “spiritual nepotism” [20, pp. 214, 215].
The basis of hesychasm is the ascetic practice of internal (silent) prayer, called Jesus’ or Mind’ prayer.
Prayer is aimed at obtaining, storing and transmitting the experience of a Christian’s unity with God. Such unity is deification, the acquisition of the Holy Spirit, carried out by God’s Grace. It is a gift from God.
The unity of a Christian with God is the unity of the energies of the whole (“the whole”, in the terminology of the Hesychasts) – bodily-soulful-spiritual – man and the energies of God, which appears as an increase in human energies carried out by God’s Grace in the sequence: bodily – soulful – spiritual.
At the same time, according to the testimony of Gregory Palamas, the energies of God surpass all human energies, “not only because He is their cause, but also because what is received always turns out to be only an insignificant share of His gift” [5, p. 309].
The interaction of human energies and the energies of God is called synergy. Synergy ensures that a person can overcome the hardships of earthly life and even death itself. Such overcoming is salvation. (“Salvation” is a concept, i.e., extremely important in Orthodoxy. In fact, the entire life of an Orthodox person is work that, by God’s Grace, can lead a person to salvation. And this work, as it was wisely noted, consists of “transformation of the heart” [Macarius of Egypt].) Hesychasm is determined in Russian philosophy its pronounced anthropologism, metaanthropologism. S.S. Khoruzhy indicates this.
Khoruzhy emphasizes that thanks to hesychasm, in Russian philosophy, “man becomes existential…; being becomes human… (arises. – A.K.) the mutual belonging of man and being. The reality of events, taken within the horizon of this mutual belonging, (can. – A.K.) be called the reality of man…” [9, p. 281].
Having a very close connection with the Byzantine mystical-philosophical tradition, primarily through hesychasm, Russian philosophy constantly strived for self-determination in it, finding its own face in it – not by excluding Byzantineism, but by mastering it and transforming it.
And this face, its “I” of Russian philosophy was predetermined by the peculiarity of Russian culture (essentially, Russianness), which astutely wrote about. G.V. Florovsky.
According to Florovsky, Russian culture (Russianness) contains two cultures, as if located on two floors. On the lower floor, there is a culture coming from paganism. Florovsky calls it “night” culture. On the top floor is the culture coming from Christianity (Orthodoxy), designated by the scientist as “daytime” culture. According to Florovsky, “‘night’ culture is an area of dreaming and imagination”, it manifests itself “in the insufficient ‘spirituality’ of the soul, in excessive ‘soulfulness’ or ‘poetry.’ “‘Daily’ culture (is. – A.K.) a culture of spirit and mind”. When we talk about “daytime” culture, “we are talking about spiritual sublimation and transformation of the soulfulness into the spiritual” [4, pp. 15-16].
The first is finding oneself at the level of “night” culture: soulfulness, and the second – at the level of “day” culture: spirituality. At the same time, it is significant to remember that spirituality has been understood in Rus’ since ancient times as a moral feat: service to creation and resistance to destruction (annihilation) [6].
And now, considering all of the above, you can try to answer the question: “What is Russian philosophy?”
It seems that in the most generalized, summary form, the answer to this question will look like this: Russian philosophy is the solution to the moral problem of victory over death. L.V. Karasev very accurately writes about this: “There is no problem for Russia; there is a problem of overcoming death” [8, p. 104] (2).
Finding the sense of music
Music has always attracted Russian philosophers. To be convinced of this, it is necessary to first clarify from what time Russian philosophy dates back, i.e., when it first felt itself at the level of “night” culture. Here the view on Russian philosophy history, proposed by V.V. Zenkovsky, is very helpful.
Zenkovsky notes that in the history of Russian philosophy, there was a prologue (the philosopher calls it “the threshold of philosophy”). We believe that in this prologue, Russian philosophy first felt itself.
The philosopher divides the prologue into two periods: 1) until the 18th century and 2) 18th century. Let us consider these periods.
Until the 18th century
At this time, thinkers were already appearing – theologians, church leaders, saints, raising philosophical questions. Among such thinkers, we should name Clement (Clim) Smolyatich, Kirik of Novgorod, Cyril of Turov, but especially the saint, monk Nil Sorsky.
Nil Sorsky was a follower and successor of the Byzantine Hesychasts. Thus, he talks about the state of internal prayer, leading to a kind of enlightenment, in which “there is relief in the struggle and calmness of thoughts, and the mind, as if with abundant food, is saturated with prayer and has fun, and a certain inexpressible sweetness emanates from the heart, and spreads to the whole body, and in all members the disease turns into sweetness… Then a person is in joy…” [22, p. 170].
Being associated with the Byzantine Hesychasts, Nil Sorsky shows a certain independence in his approach to their heritage. So, e.g., in the description of the Jesus prayer, Neil adds two new points: consolation and tears. Nil Sorsky has wonderful thoughts about music, or more precisely, about church singing, the basis of which was the znamenny chant (znamenny raspev).
(Znamenny chant is a type of ancient Russian liturgical singing. The peculiarities of this singing were that, firstly, when singing, the main thing was the pronunciation of words, which were the words of the Jesus Prayer, and, secondly, the singing was performed in unison – monophonic: everyone sang together, as one person. According to the explanation by B.P. Kutuzov, “znamenny chant… is icon-painting music, it can say to be a sounding icon… Znamenny chant is… prayer expressed in sounds… The task of znamenny chant (is. – A.K.) cleansing the soul from passions, reflecting images of the spiritual, invisible world” [19, p. 43].)
Focusing on consolation and tears, the saint highlights the same moments in the impact of liturgical singing. Nil Sorsky points out: “The gift of tears… acquired… who from what: one – from considering the sacraments of the Lord’s love for mankind (icon painting. – A.K.), the other – from reading stories about the lives and exploits and teachings of saints (literature. – A.K.) … others are distressed by some canons and troparions (singing genres. – A.K.)” [22, p. 168].
18th century
In the 18th century, as G.V. Florovsky emphasizes, churchless asceticism is noticeably increasing, which was “the awakening of dreaminess and imagination. (Some kind of. – A.K.) mystical curiosity develops” [4, p. 161].
This, as Florovsky puts it, “‘languishing of the spirit,’ sometimes dreamy, sometimes ecstatic” [4, p. 161] was reflected in the works of the clergy of this time, first of all, St. Tikhon of Zadonsky and Paisiy Velichkovsky.
At the same time, at this time in Russia (in Malorussia, which was then part of the Russian state), an original thinker making his way to philosophy, Grigory Savvich Skovoroda, powerfully declared himself.
Due to this “touch” of philosophy, Grigory Skovoroda became the herald of Russian philosophy (at the level of “night” culture).
According to V.V. Zenkovsky, Skovoroda is “the first philosopher in Rus’ in the exact sense of the word” [30, p. 65]. (At the same time, Zenkovsky makes an important clarification, especially in the context of our reflections: “And if we bring Skovoroda closer to the mystics, then not Western ones… but to the Eastern ones” [30, p. 70].)
Skovoroda’s philosophy is a motley mixture of Greek philosophy, biblical stories, Eastern intuitions, folklore motifs, etc. However, despite all the motleyness, two significant themes clearly emerge in it.
The first is about two natures: external and internal, i.e., created and Divine.
As Skovoroda writes, “The whole world consists of two natures: one is visible, the other is invisible. The visible is called creature, and the invisible is called God. This invisible nature, or God, permeates and contains all creatures, everywhere and always was, is and will be” [24, p. 149].
The second is about three natures: the macrocosm (Universe), the microcosm (man) and the Bible.
According to Skovoroda, all these natures are concentrated in man. Thus, Skovoroda remarks: “And without measuring yourself first, what is the use of knowing the measure in other creatures?” [24, p. 135]. Or: “Who can recognize the plan in earthly and heavenly materials… if he could not first see it in… his flesh?” [24, p. 135]. And again: “My body is based on the eternal plane… (You. – A.K.) see only a bestial body in you. You do not see the spiritual body” [24, pp. 136-138].
In his teaching about man, Skovoroda emphasizes the importance of the heart. He assures: “The head of everything in a person is the human heart. It is the most accurate person in a person”. And then a stunning conclusion: “What is the heart if not the soul? What is the soul if not a bottomless abyss of thoughts?” [24, p. 341].
Skovoroda constantly pointed out the frailty of earthly life and the need to break out of it. The Thinker urged: “Leave all this physical pus and bloodworms to the stupid and snotty virgins. And eat with Ezekiel the fragrant unleavened bread and the satisfying manna of God’s sacred Passover, moving from earth to heaven, from tangible to intangible, from the lower, corruptible, into the first-born world” [25, p. 52].
Skovoroda’s statement about the unity of people, unity in the “true man” – in Christ, was especially significant. Skovoroda writes: “One work… is to know oneself and understand God, to know and understand the exact person, all the work and his deception from his shadow, on which we all dwell. But true man and God are the same” [24, p. 140]. “This is the true man, equal to his eternal father in being and strength, one in all of us and whole in everyone, but his kingdom has no end…” [24, p. 162].
Skovoroda talks a lot about music. And this is no coincidence.
In addition to possessing theological and philosophical talents, Skovoroda was extremely gifted musically: he composed spiritual concerts and songs, played numerous musical instruments, e.g., violin, flutetraver, bandura, and gusli, and sang great.
In his ideas about music, Skovoroda proceeded from the Pythagorean idea of the existence of Heavenly music – Harmony of the spheres.
The Harmony of the spheres, according to Skovoroda, is the embodiment of Cosmic Harmony, which he called Symphony. The word “symphony” comes from the Greek word “sinphonia” – consonance, and the word “sinphonia” is directly related to the concept of “synergy”.
As Skovoroda believes, Heavenly music (Harmony of the spheres) is God. Skovoroda reflects: “Is it not God who contains everything? … He is the true tree in the tree, grass in the grass, music in music” [24, p. 134]. “Every ear hears the creaking of a musical instrument, but to feel the taste of the agreement hidden in the creaking, the ear must have a secret concept, and the one deprived of it… is dumb in music” [24, p. 362].
According to Skovoroda, Heavenly music is most clearly manifested in music created by man – instrumental and singing.
The connection between Heavenly music and music created by man, in Skovoroda’s understanding, is poetically presented in the description of his learner and close friend Mikhail Kovalinsky: “Not content with conversation…, he invited his friend (M. Kovalinsky. – A.K.) to take a walk in the summer late in the evening outside the city and insensitively brought him to the city cemetery. There, walking at midnight between the graves and the coffins torn open by the wind on the sandy ground, he talked about the reckless fearfulness of people aroused in their imagination by the deceased bodies. Sometimes he sang something befitting good-naturedness there; sometimes, retiring to a nearby grove, he played the flutetraver, leaving his young friend alone between the coffins, supposedly so that it would be more pleasant for him to listen to music from afar” [25, p. 393].
Let us add that Skovoroda was deeply aware of the beneficial effects of music on humans. Thus, through the mouth of a character in one of his dialogues, he says: “Music is a great medicine in sorrow, consolation in sorrow and fun in happiness” [25, p. 113].
19th century
The 19th century, according to Zenkovsky, is the beginning of the actual history of Russian philosophy. And what’s interesting, according to Florovsky, is the time of the Russian philosophy establishment as an original phenomenon (at the level of “daytime” culture). It is no coincidence that Florovsky calls this historical moment the “awakening” of Russian philosophy.
The Russian philosophical thought “awakening” was prepared by the social situation in Russia. It was a response to it.
At this time, a large number of philosophical circles appeared in Russia. The most famous of them was the “Obshchestvo lyubomudriya”. It included D.V. Venevitinov, V.F. Odoevsky, I.V. Kireevsky, S.P. Shevyrev, A.I. Koshelev and others.
Apparently, the most significant philosopher in this association was I.V. Kireevsky. The pathos of Kireevsky’s philosophy lay in upholding the originality of Russian philosophy – in comparison with Western philosophy. He saw this originality in the Russian philosophy support of Russian philosophy on Sacred Tradition, the Holy Father’s wisdom reflection and implementation in it.
Kireevsky considered the central position of Russian philosophy to be the affirmation of moral principles. His phrase from a letter to A.I. Koshelev (1827) has already become a textbook: “We… will agree gracefully with morality, arouse love for truth, …we will elevate the purity of life above the purity of style” [10, p. 336].
Kireevsky wrote little about music. At the same time, he has a statement surprising in its insight, in which he mentions music. So, in a letter to A.S. Khomyakov (1840), Kireevsky notes: “As long as a thought is clear to the mind or accessible to the word, it is still powerless on the soul and will. When it develops to the point of inexpressibility, it has only reached maturity. This inexpressible, looking through expression, will give strength to poetry and music…” [10, p. 362].
However, V.F. Odoevsky wrote most consistently and in-depth about music at this time.
V.F. Odoevsky’s music interpretation is evidenced by his treatise “An Experience in the Theory of Fine Arts with a Special Application to Music”.
In this treatise Odoevsky proceeds from the fact that every particular phenomenon has its essence. In turn, there is a certain essence constituting the essence of all essences. According to Odoevsky, this is Bezuslov (Absolute).
Bezuslov predetermines the harmony of nature and reveals itself to the human soul. As Odoevsky points out, “the existence of the Bezuslov is not only in nature, but it’s thought is in the very soul of a person; this thought is dear to the soul, it is a property of the human soul”. And further: “This thought is innate to our soul, (and. – A.K.) it is up to the thinker to discover it and explore its laws” [23, p. 157]. At the same time, “cognition is the connection of the known with the knower, in other words: for an object to become knowledge, two spheres are necessary: the knower and the known” [23, pp. 168-169].
Odoevsky emphasizes that music is the sound embodiment of the harmony of nature – the harmony of the life-giving and deadening principles. The life-giving and deadening principles “in music appear under the forms of… consonance and anticonsonance (consonantia – dissonantia)” [23, pp. 157-158]. According to Odoevsky, representing the harmony of nature, music conveys the harmony of the human soul and, thus, is a direct expression of the merging of the soul and the Bezuslov.
Extremely important was Odoevsky’s conversion, already at the end of his life, to the study of Old Russian Orthodox singing.
Odoevsky wrote a large number of articles on Old Russian church singing. Among them: “Brief Notes on the Characteristics of Russian Orthodox Church Singing”, “Orthodox Church Singing and Its Notes, Hooks and Other Signs”, “On the Question of Old Russian Chant” and others. Summarized they are presented in his work “Ancient Russian chant. Experience of guidance in the study of the basic laws of melody and harmony for non-musicians, especially adapted to the development of manuscripts about our ancient chant”, unfortunately, still unpublished.
1st half of 20th century
In the 1st half of 20th century there was a rapid Russian philosophy development, its true flourishing within the framework of the general “Russian spiritual renaissance” [2].
It is significant that at this time, among Russian philosophers, there was a great interest in music and an understanding of the extraordinary philosophical possibilities in it. Each of the philosophers saw these possibilities in their way.
So, A.F. Losev’s music is an exceptional means of ascent to God, a kind of prayer; P.A. Florensky’s music is the life-giving power of the Liturgical action, based on rhythm and carried out according to the typikon (church charter); N.O. Lossky writes that sound expresses the unity of the visible and the invisible; I.I. Lapshin emphasizes the fusion of music and philosophy, especially in the work of Scriabin. But, perhaps, the specifics of the interpretation of music by Russian philosophers are most generally revealed in E.N. Trubetskoy’s works at that time.
Trubetskoy’s music interpretation followed the guidelines of his main philosophical work, “The sense of life”.
In this work Trubetskoy argues that the sense of life is revealed to a person thanks to philosophy, which helps him understand that his life sense is in reunification with God [27, p. 23].
This reunification requires human creativity.
According to Trubetskoy, the clearest expression of such activity is music. Trubetskoy concludes that music has unique possibilities for reuniting a person with God and talks about how he experienced a meeting with God while listening to Beethoven’s 9th Symphony at a concert.
It is how the philosopher describes this event: “It is difficult to convey the state of delight that I experienced then at the symphony concert. Just a few months earlier, a dilemma inspired by Schopenhauer and Dostoevsky had confronted my youthful consciousness. Either there is God, and in him is the fullness of life above the world, or it is not worth living at all. And I suddenly saw this dilemma deeply, clearly expressed in brilliant musical images. There is something infinitely more here than the formulation of a dilemma – there is a life experience of the otherworldly, – a real feeling of (eternal. – A.K.) peace. Your thought… perceives the entire world drama from that height of eternity, where all confusion and horror are miraculously transformed into joy and peace. And you feel that (this. – A.K.) eternal peace that descends from above onto the universe is not the negation of life, but the fullness of life. None of the great artists and philosophers of the world felt and revealed this as Beethoven did” [28, p. 157].
Beethoven helped Trubetskoy survive his meeting with God. And there, it is necessary to note an extremely significant point: this happened when Trubetskoy was immersed in symphony – Beethoven’s 9th Symphony. And the word “symphony” had a sacred meaning for Trubetskoy (close to the meaning of this word for Grigory Skovoroda).
In Trubetskoy’s view, a symphony is something uniting the earthly and the heavenly (Divine). The philosopher reminds: “The symphony, uniting the entire world of heaven and earth, sounds already at the beginning of the Gospel, in the story of the Evangelist Luke about the Nativity of Christ. The Good news preached to all creatures is precisely the promise of this symphony” [27, p. 208].
Beethoven’s 9th Symphony was a harbinger of such a symphony for E. Trubetskoy.
2nd half of the 20th century – present day
In the 2nd half of the 20th century Russian philosophy collapsed as an original spiritual phenomenon.
The Russian philosophy collapse was also reflected in works that explored the philosophical issues of music. At the same time, it was reflected in two ways: in some works, Russian philosophy was replaced by the dominant one at that time, Marxist-Leninist, in others, philosophical issues were completely dissolved in musicology.
And yet, in the 2nd half of the 20th century, most likely already at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, there was a return to Russian philosophy, i.e., the “renaissance of the renaissance” of Russian philosophy and it is associated with the works of A.L. Kazin, A.A. Ermichev, A.A. Korolkov, S.M. Polovinkin, N.K. Gavryushin and other authors. This return also made itself felt in the field of philosophy of music.
At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the first works on the philosophy of music appeared, again built on a well-established basis for Russian philosophy. These works belong to M.S. Uvarov.
Uvarov views music as a means of confession. The philosopher has written many articles and books on this topic but it seems his ideas are most concentratedly expressed in the article “Music and Confession”.
In it, M.S. Uvarov writes that the aspect of the confessional word, which is well “read” in the main genres of artistic creativity, is especially clearly manifested in music. The music of any outstanding composer, Uvarov emphasizes, cannot but carry a confessional meaning. The maturity of an artist’s thinking depends on the ability to analyze an artistic task, including at the level of its experience bestowed by confession and prayer. The composer, sensitively reacting to the objective conflict of existence, realizes and transfers the measure of his awareness of tragedy into the fabric of the work of art, in turn, expressing the degree of comprehension of world harmony [26].
The further development of the philosophy of music in Russia – on the foundation of Russian philosophy – was performed (and is being carried out to this day) by the author of this article.
We have proposed a model of the philosophy of music, which, we believe, today can be considered as the result of the development of judgments about music by Russian philosophers (from the period until the 18th century to the present day).
About the model
The model is called the “New Synergetic Philosophy of Music”. It has two components: theoretical and practical. In the theoretical component, the model is based on the conjugation of two principles: classical (old) synergetics and hesychasm. Let’s explain what has been said.
Classical (old) synergetics, which emerged in the 70s of the XX century, was an interdisciplinary field in science, within the framework of which the peculiarities of the self-organization of systems in the world were studied. It was found that systems evolve in the direction from less organized (orderly, stable, reliable) to more organized (orderly, stable, etc.). According to the founder of synergetics, German physicist Hermann Haken, he used the word “synergy” to name the new scientific branch he proposed – “synergetics”.
Hesychasm has already been mentioned above.
The conjugation of classical (old) synergetics and hesychasm occurs as follows: reading prayer by a Christian hesychast leads (and today) not only to his unity with God, but also to the transfer of the experience of this unity, since in the process of prayer the Christian hesychast communicates with all people, humanity [1]. Such communication contributes to the emergence in every lay person of the desire for unity with God in the world. This aspiration is expressed in the bodily, soulful and spiritual activation of a person in the world and determines the development of the world, according to the principle of self-organization of systems. In our opinion, the very self-organization of systems is represented by the sequence: nature – society – culture – art – music. In other words, music is the embodiment of person’s unity with God in the world.
In practice, we believe that music is the most powerful means of uniting the individual with God. In our opinion, music therapy is the process of bringing individuals to God through music.
We have developed a music therapy technology designed to provide a person with an ascent to God. How is this achieved?
We believe there is a structural similarity between person and music. In our opinion, both person and music consist of three intercorrelated levels: the first level of person is correlated with the first level of music, the second level of person is done with the second level of music, the third level of person is done with the third level of music.
Human levels: bodily, soulful, spiritual.
The levels of music, its bodily, soulful, spiritual levels, are called by us, respectively, physical-acoustic (the elements of which are rhythm, meter, tempo, timbre, dynamics), communicative-intonation (the element of which is intonation), spiritual-value (the elements of which are mode (tonality), melody and harmony).
Thus, with the bodily hypostasis of a person correlate the physical-acoustic level of the sound of music (rhythm, tempo, etc.), with the soulful hypostasis – communicative-intonation level (intonation), and with the spiritual one – spiritual-value level (mode (tonality), etc.).
Principle of operation: in the first sessions, music is used in which the first level of music prevails (rhythm, meter, tempo, timbre, dynamics). Such music is designed to activate the body-plastic component of a person (at the same time, of course, the use of other types of sound is not excluded, but the main thing is still material based on rhythm, meter, etc.).
In subsequent sessions, the emphasis is first placed on the second level of music (based on intonation) and then on the third (based on mode (tonality), melody and harmony), activating, respectively, the soulful and spiritual aspects of a person. Thus, the conducted music therapy sessions stimulate the bodily-soulful-spiritual growth of a person, revealing to him the Higher dimension of existence.
Instead of a conclusion
So, consideration of the topic showed that Russian philosophers paid close attention to music, and this attention intensified from era to era. This increase was explained by the fact that Russian philosophers became more and more clearly aware of the music greatness and its unprecedented possibilities in liberating man from the misfortunes of earthly existence, everything temporary, finite.
And indeed, listening to music, we forget about time and space and find ourselves in some another “wonderful” dimension of existence, in a new world of unfading beauty, greatness, and nobility. This world is of eternal existence, eternal life. And if this is so, music consequently helps us overcome earthly sorrows, sadness, not for long while it sounds, but thereby strengthens our faith that such overcoming is possible forever. In other words, music testifies that it is possible to defeat death! (3)
Alexander S. Klujev – Doctor Habil. in Philosophy, Full Professor
A graduate of the Leningrad (St. Petersburg) Rimsky-Korsakov State Conservatory, he is a pianist and musicologist (1980), studied philosophy at Leningrad (St. Petersburg) Zhdanov State University (1980), trained in the USA as a music therapist (1994).
He is the author of more than 350 scientific papers published in Russia and abroad: USA, Italy, Spain, Germany, Czech Republic, Romania, Turkey, China, India, UAE, Moldova, Belarus, Ukraine.
Main scientific works: “Music and Life: on the place of musical art in the developing world” (1997); “Ontology of Music” (2003, 2010); “Philosophy of Music:” (2004, 2010); “Music: the Path to the Absolute” (2015); “The Sum of Music” (2017, 2021); “10 articles on the Russian Philosophy of Music” (2023); “Russian Philosophy of Music: 2010s and 2020s articles. (Transl. from Russ.)” (2023); “Russian Philosophy of Music: Articles from the 2010s and 2020s” (2024).
Member of the editorial boards of and leading columnist in the journals:
“Philosophical Sciences”, “Annales of the Zubov Institute”, “Questions of Cultural Studies”, “Medicine and Art”, “Credo New” and others.
Literature
(1) By the way, this position is not original. It was stated before, e.g., by B.V. Yakovenko [29].
(2) This section of the article exists as a separate article in Russian, English and Italian, see: [17; 16; 11].
(3) For more information on the topic of the article, see: [12; 13; 14; 15].
“Here”
…To be hot in the dawn
of a beam-pumping sun
while its bent is to fawn
on the very third one
of its innermost planets
-a town there called Here –
(forget its griefs, fan its
small errors, its fear,
its unwitting decedents –
forgive its death-credence,
its opters-out present and past.)
To be there on that street is to last.
To be spun so close before so hot
a star is the happiest lot. …
“Bearings“
The earth’s diurnal twirl would appear
to make her denizens vertiginous
but for precession’s happy wobble dance;
it only seems like ev’rything is futile,
we’re not just going round in circles here,
revolving round the sun year after year –
our Sol’s at rim of spinning Milky Way
engaged in her ninth turn since time began,
but still, it’s not monotonously cyclic
for our galactic cluster heads somewhere:
Since Milky Wayeans participate
along with our Andromedan confrers
in forces contrary, at any rate,,
to that entropic aging all life shares,
there may just be the actual up-side
of time-reverse, near immortality,
at least five billion years ’till we collide,
again one cosmic outwardness to see.
So add height to your posture, lilt to stride –
a loping lanky pace you can take on,
you grasp the basic linearity
of humankind’s loopy trajectory –
so you can choose to be dizzy no more,
the mind at last deciding to take heart –
the thoughtful mind that now cannot be bored.
“New Look at the Long View of the Big Picture”
Most galaxies seek loneliness.
It’s one of entropy’s decrees
they fly apart. Such onliness
Our Milky Way can’t please.
It seems that we’ll win chaos’ joys;
we’ve found we hurl our spinning spiral
toward dear Andromeda’s shocked boys,
(though prob’ly nice). We’re not so viral –
But now much less excusable must rate
that Earthlings war in spite of mortal fate.
…
Deities
Religiosos like to say
no greater love can man bestow
than when one gives his life away
to help a brother-man. Although
they don’t cite paragons of lust,
by this ‘twould seem Desire’s king
were one who would a lover trust
to sate his comrade’s hungering.