INTERCULTURAL SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES: ANALYSIS OF KOREAN AND UZBEK FUNERAL RITUALS

Nilufar Yoldoshova, SamDChTI, Faculty of Oriental Studies,

Department of Philology and Language Teaching (Korean),

1st year, Group 2502

Abstract:

Funeral rituals of the Korean and Uzbek peoples each possess unique cultural values and traditions of respect for the deceased. However, significant differences exist in both form and meaning. These differences are primarily shaped by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Shamanism in Korean society, and by the combination of Islam and national customs in Uzbek society. Although both cultures emphasize communal unity, deep respect for elders, and honoring the memory of the deceased, the organizational process, symbolic expression, and spiritual interpretation of funeral rituals show notable distinctions. This article explores the similarities and differences between the funeral practices of these two cultures.

Keywords: funeral ritual, funeral hall, memorial table, condolence money, mourning, coffin, shroud

Introduction

A funeral ritual is a ceremony and set of customs associated with burying the deceased. Funeral practices have evolved since the emergence of humanity, influenced by geographic environment, social life, human capabilities, scientific understanding, and worldviews. Even in the Paleolithic period, 40,000–18,000 years ago, burial rituals were performed. Over time, funeral practices became integrated with religious rituals and customs. Every culture has specific forms, rules, and procedures for funerals. Through these rituals, societies bid farewell to their members, preserve their memory, and, according to their beliefs, ensure the peace of the soul. Funerals are not only a time of grief and mourning but also an opportunity to reflect on the meaning of life and reinforce human values.

The main purposes of a funeral ritual are:

Respect for the deceased: This is the final expression of honor and reverence for the deceased.

Gathering and remembrance: Relatives and friends come together to share positive memories and bid farewell.

Compassion: To show the deceased’s close ones that they are not alone and to comfort them in their loss.

Spiritual and religious beliefs: In many religions, funeral rituals represent an important stage for the soul’s transition, purification, or return to God.

Korean Funeral Rituals

In Korean society, the funeral process is not only a farewell to the deceased but also an important cultural event reflecting their religious, philosophical, and social values. These rituals are influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Shamanism, all of which emphasize respect for death as the final stage of human life.

Korean funeral traditions primarily developed under Confucian influence. In Confucianism, filial piety (효, hyo) toward parents and ancestors is the highest virtue. Therefore, children, especially the eldest son or grandson, play a critical role in the burial process. Buddhism emphasizes the rebirth of the soul, while Shamanism involves beliefs connected to spiritual entities and ceremonies.

Historically, funerals were held at home, but today they take place in specialized funeral halls (장례식장, jangnyesikjang) or hospital-associated centers. The “Jesa” ritual involves preparing food for the deceased every day for 49 days after death, reflecting the belief that the soul should not remain hungry. Typically, the funeral lasts three days:

Day 1: Preparing the body for burial (washing, shrouding, placing in position).

Day 2: Receiving guests and conducting condolence ceremonies.

Day 3: Burial or cremation (화장, hwajang).

Key stages of the ceremony:

The body is cleansed and wrapped in a white shroud, then placed before the memorial table (향안) with flowers, candles, and a photograph of the deceased. The chief mourner (상주, sangju), usually the eldest son, is responsible for all organizational duties. Guests bow deeply twice to the deceased and once to the family. Traditionally, only men served as sangju, but today women also participate, reflecting gender equality trends.

Guests give condolence money (부의금, bueuigeum) to support the bereaved family and cover funeral expenses:

Standard amount: 50,000–100,000 WON (approx. $50–100)

Close relatives: 100,000–500,000 WON

Business partners: 50,000–200,000 WON

Commonly: 50,000 WON

Food and beverages, including soju (소주), are served, and guests often remain until evening to provide emotional support. Traditionally, the deceased was buried, but modern cremation (화장, hwajang) has become increasingly common due to limited land resources and environmental considerations. Some families create keepsakes or memorial balls from the ashes to honor the memory of the deceased. Participants wear dark or black simple clothing; historically, families wore special mourning garments (상복, sangbok). Loud voices, jokes, or laughter are considered inappropriate.

Uzbek Funeral Rituals

Uzbek funeral practices have deep historical roots and are primarily shaped by Islamic religion and local customs. These ceremonies serve not only to send off the deceased but also to provide social compassion and spiritual support for their family and community.

Islam is the primary influence on Uzbek funerals, and all processes are carried out according to the Sunni Hanafi school of thought. Additionally, ancient Turkic and Persian cultural practices, such as holding memorial ceremonies on specific days, are observed. The focus is on the soul’s peace and salvation in the afterlife. Funerals usually occur in three main locations: the deceased’s home, mosque, and cemetery. Burial is typically conducted within 24 hours but is not mandatory on the day of death. The one-day ceremony includes washing (ghusl), shrouding, funeral prayer (janaza), and burial. After burial, family and friends recite the Qur’an and prepare a communal meal.

Shrouding: The body is wrapped in a white cloth symbolizing purity and equality.

Funeral prayer (janaza): Performed in the mosque or open space as a final collective prayer.

Burial: The deceased is laid on their side facing the Qibla, and each participant throws soil three times.

Financial support: Guests provide condolence money (sadaqa).

Only traditional burial is practiced; cremation is forbidden under Islamic law. Simple headstones are placed on graves, and elaborate structures are strictly prohibited. Participants wear simple black or white clothing; women cover their heads with scarves. Loud crying or wailing is strictly forbidden, as it may disturb the deceased’s soul.

Post-funeral ceremonies:

3rd day: Qur’an recitation and remembrance

7th day: Family and close relatives gather

40th day: Broader community participation

1-year memorial: Final remembrance

Similarities (despite differences):

Respect for the deceased: Both cultures view the funeral as a way to honor the deceased and fulfill one’s duty.

Family centrality: Close relatives, particularly the eldest son or closest male relative, play an essential role.

Gathering and rituals: Both traditions include communal gatherings (condolence meetings, meals) as part of mourning.

Dress code: Wearing dark or somber clothing is customary in both cultures, with Uzbek attire being modest and Islamic-compliant.

Differences:

Korean rituals are influenced by multiple religions; Uzbek rituals are primarily Islamic.

Korean funerals last three days, whereas Uzbek funerals are completed within 24 hours.

Burial method: cremation is common in Korea, while Uzbekistan strictly practices underground burial.

Commemoration practices: Koreans perform extended ancestral rites, while Uzbeks focus on prayer for the deceased.

Korean ceremonies often emphasize the eldest child’s role, while Uzbek ceremonies involve the entire community.

Financial support: Koreans give “bueuigeum,” while Uzbeks provide “sadaqa.”

Venue: Korean funerals often occur in specialized halls, whereas Uzbek ceremonies are held at home, mosque, and cemetery.

Post-funeral rituals: Korea observes a 49-day cycle, while Uzbekistan has ceremonies on the 3rd, 7th, 40th day, and 1 year.

Conclusion:

Korean and Uzbek funeral practices reflect unique cultural and religious characteristics. Korean rituals emphasize ancestral worship and family traditions, while Uzbek rituals are based on Islamic beliefs and community involvement. In both cultures, funerals honor the deceased and console the bereaved. These rituals are an important part of cultural heritage, passed down through generations.

References:

“Korean Funeral Customs” – National Folk Museum of Korea, 2015

“Death and Funeral Culture in Korea” – Seoul National University Press, Seoul, 2018

“Korean Traditional Culture Series” – Korea University Publishing, Korea, 2020

“Uzbek Folk Rituals” – Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, 2017, pp. 156–189

“Islam and Uzbek Traditions” – Muslim Board of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, 2019

“Uzbek National Encyclopedia,” Tashkent, 2021

Narrative Structure and Artistic Construction

The novel opens with a shocking scene resembling a crime scene: the body of a young man named Yam is found in the square of Bran Castle in Germany, pierced by a metal rod engraved with the symbolic phrase: “You have water, but you do not have the soul.” The author uses this opening scene as a reverse introduction, beginning the narrative from its end before moving back to the past of the protagonist Yim and her struggle. Events unfold through a temporal overlap between past and present, as information about Yam (the transgender character) is gradually revealed through Yim’s memories, diary-like narration, mobile phone entries, and messages.

The narrative relies on a stream-of-consciousness technique (internal monologue), immersed in the free flow of the protagonist’s thoughts. Memories and reflections move non-linearly through Yim’s consciousness, shifting at times to her childhood in the Ghouta region of Syria, and at others to her migration or transition experience in Europe. The text highlights the tension between childhood memories (the absence of the mother and family disintegration) and present challenges (war, displacement, and integration into Western society). Thus, time and space intersect: the setting shifts from “traditional Syria” to “liberal Europe,” and time oscillates between the era of war and the era of exile. Critics have noted that this technique powerfully conveys the protagonist’s inner alienation, as Yim/Yam’s character gradually unfolds through narratives of travel and the hardships of asylum.

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Characters

The novel centers on the main character Yim, who embodies the core conflict, surrounded by secondary characters, most notably: her deceased Syrian husband (the initial motive for migration), the German woman Ferdwald, who encourages her transition, the Lebanese friend Elena, and the emotionally absent and abusive father who traumatized her childhood. Through these characters, the novel dramatizes the dichotomy between the conservative East and the open West, between the “original conscience” and the “acquired self.” This character construction reinforces the idea of a triple identity: the protagonist exists as a blend of an Eastern woman, a Western man, and a lost child, locked in a continuous struggle with a fragmented self.

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Core Themes and Issues

The novel fundamentally revolves around questions of identity in both existential and gendered senses. It portrays Yim’s suffering in her search for a stable self and a meaningful life, followed by her gender transition into Yam as an attempt at psychological healing from inner conflict. The work highlights the tension between her original identity and her acquired one: Yim experiences alienation from her new body and contradictory thoughts, caught between what her Eastern culture shaped in her and what the liberal West promotes. One critical study notes that the novel “examines Yim’s experience and interactions while crossing into a third gender, and how individual identity is formed and shaped by social conditions,” presenting gender transition as a decisive choice that confronts the protagonist with conflicting identities and leads to profound psychological turmoil.

The inner conflict is closely linked to external circumstances: life trials—parental loss, war, and patriarchal oppression—push Yim toward radical choices. Critical analysis suggests that these surrounding conditions drove her toward gender transition as a fateful option, yet the narrative demonstrates that this decision did not bring inner peace but instead intensified her sense of alienation and non-belonging. The protagonist’s opening testimony reflects this fracture: “I am merely the ghost of a lost man… living in a body that does not belong to him…”, underscoring the duality of gender and the impossibility of harmony between its poles.

The novel also addresses sexual liberation and homosexuality. It presents Ferdwald, a lesbian German woman who supports the transition, alongside other lesbian female characters, while criticizing sexual stereotyping in Arab societies. At the same time, it emphasizes that Western “enlightened” practices—encouraging homosexuality and transition—do not prevent the protagonist’s tragedy, but rather intensify her conflict. A journalist remarks that the novel shows how “the alleged freedom of the West quickly reveals its hidden complexities when the protagonist confronts the tragedy of integration and the exploitation of migrants,” placing the work in a critical position toward both Eastern and Western behaviors.

Additionally, the novel incorporates political and social entanglements such as asylum, smuggling, and addiction. It sheds light on refugee hardships, including the dangers posed by smugglers, and criticizes cultural fragility and the absence of social support. Although the plot centers on an individual tragedy, it ultimately projects a broader human catastrophe: the search for identity within constantly shifting environments.

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Symbolism and Significance

The novel employs powerful symbols that deepen its thematic dimensions. Foremost among these is water, which recurs at pivotal moments (Europe, transition, death) as a dual symbol: on one hand, life, fluidity, and hope for freedom; on the other, drowning, destruction, and fear of collapse. Water emerges as a witness to the bleeding and fragmentation of the soul; the engraved phrase “You have water, but you do not have the soul” unites hope with tragedy, turning water into a symbol of contradiction between survival and loss.

Another prominent symbol is the number three. The title “Third of Three” suggests fragmentation and disintegration, implicitly pointing to a triangular identity (masculinity, femininity, and lost childhood) and the imbalance between them. Critics argue that the number three in the novel “indicates a state of fragmentation between past and present, self and other, and between beautiful dreams and bitter reality.” Each transformation or decision by the protagonist thus reenacts this fragile triadic condition, where the desired harmony remains unattainable.

Overall, the novel employs these symbols with expressive eloquence, suggesting that the battle over identity unfolds on rich symbolic ground. Tattoos, slogans, and blood recur in a dense network, turning each dramatic scene into a direct reflection of the inner struggle.

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Style and Language

The language of the novel leans toward clear analytical narration with occasional lyrical descriptiveness. Some critics have praised Al-Mismar’s engaging style and adherence to narrative structure, combining dialogue, description, imagination, and internal monologue (including writings and mobile messages) within a cohesive plot. The protagonist’s narrative voice is personal and dynamic, marked by strong metaphors—such as “a raging sea whose depths cannot be reached”—and an intense expression of femininity and inner violence.

However, some observers note that the novel allows ample space for direct social commentary. At times, its style tends toward explicit didacticism, reinforcing its message through repetition and moral emphasis. One critic argued that the narrative structure lacks the familiar artistic complexity of tightly plotted novels, occasionally approaching a socially motivated discourse clothed in fictional form. Conversely, many readers believe that the open, poetic, and descriptive language—driven by the rhythm of stream of consciousness—draws deeply into the protagonist’s psyche, granting the text emotional authenticity.

Aesthetically, the work relies on the repetition of key terms (water, soul, loss) and figurative imagery (simile and suggestion) to reinforce its message. The title itself—“a ghost of a lost man”—functions as a poetic metaphor, infusing the text with lyrical tension throughout the protagonist’s internal expressions. At the same time, the author presents events in accessible, readable language, avoiding explicit sexual scenes and instead focusing on the psychological and existential struggle of identity, rather than sensational description.

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The Novel within Contemporary Arabic Literature

“Third of Three: Fragments of the Self” occupies a distinctive position in contemporary Arabic literature, as it addresses issues of sexual and gender identity with unprecedented frankness. The novel belongs to a small body of Arabic works that tackle such sensitive themes, surpassing the customary limits of the local literary canon. Critics have observed that Al-Mismar does not follow Western writers (such as Leslie Feinberg or Jeffrey Eugenides) in affirming a “third identity” as a final resolution; instead, he adopts an opposing approach that exposes the psychological fragility of such identities. In this sense, the novel is bold in its proposition and has been described as “a daring literary work that addresses issues of identity and gender transition.”

The importance of the novel lies in its call for the Arab East to reconsider assumptions about imported notions of freedom and openness from the West. It urges Arab readers to confront inherited stereotypes about gender and migration, and calls institutions and societies to engage with these dilemmas realistically. From this perspective, the novel represents a qualitative shift in the treatment of gender issues in Arabic literature, moving beyond traditional debates about women’s roles to delve into the deeper contradictions between masculinity, femininity, self, and other.

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Critical and Popular Reception

Third of Three received multiple critical readings following its publication. Critics wrote extensively about its boldness and psychological depth, with Al-Mayadeen describing it as one of the “daring literary works” addressing identity. Detailed analyses appeared in newspapers and literary platforms such as Al-Ra’i, Nakheel Iraqi, and Radar Al-Arab, examining its structure, themes, and style. The author also participated in book signings and literary discussions (in Beirut and Hermel, for example), attended by audiences and activists concerned with human rights and gender issues.

At the popular level, the novel attracted attention on digital reading platforms, with approximately 9.9 thousand readers on Kotobati and a high rating of 5.0/5, reflecting strong engagement with the text. Despite criticism of its direct style, the novel sparked debate and discussion in cultural forums and gained a reference status among Arabic works attempting to engage with gender identity issues.

In sum, reception indicates that Third of Three has been described as an exceptional and significant novel. Through a skillful blend of narration, psychological analysis, and symbolism, Ashraf Al-Mismar raises sharp questions about selfhood and belonging. Despite differing opinions about its style, the novel has undeniably left its mark on the contemporary literary scene by pushing the boundaries of subject matter and narrative courage.

Portrait of Rosa Schapire

The woman sits unwilling and blue

Boxed into a corner by a chair and a red wall

Implicating you in her afflictions

Worn sharp and clean resting

In a pensive position: poised as if ready to leave

At a moments notice she is encircled with wrought waves

Gold curves just short of crossing

The sun past set on the water

She is the only bright moment left

Before you are engulfed

The only thing holding back darkness

She is dressed in bridal white

Suits adorned in a rose and strung beads

Everything that is hers emanates dark

She is your mother dressed up and dolled up

To be young again for a night that dwindles

Four red clouds watch you from behind

The sun is dripping away

And you are stuck painting a woman

That is not your mother

About Rosa Schapire:

Rosa Schapire used her ground-breaking career in art history to advocate for socialist, feminist, and anti-fascist ideals across Europe in the twentieth century. Her family and education in her hometown of Galicia, Poland, introduced her to such ideals, and her studies took her around Europe. Schapire’s contributions to the art world were many, ranging from reviews and critiques to translations to amassing an impressive collection of German Expressionist work. She edited several journals and, along with fellow art patron and suffragette Ida Dehmel, helped to form the Women’s Society for the Advancement of German Art. After the rise of the Nazis and the death of many family members, Schapire fled to England, where many pieces of her collection are still housed in museums. 

NOTHING IN RETURN!

You filled up my life of failure and futility

You didn’t decry my slightest deficiency

You never took away your riches from me

I hardly crowned your copious empathy

I crashed them with my abashed apathy

Yet you pour your unconditional kindness

When I crazily race ahead in utter vain

Desirous yet destitute in soul in entirety

It’s you who offer me everything I need

Never to get anything back in return

You always try to bind me with your love

I get away from your embrace once again

When I think of you I do lose you though

I see you right behind me as I look back

DON’T KNOW WHY!

I cannot either tell or keep mum

Something is burning in our hearts

Under the showery rain or hot sun

You robbed my heart at first sight

In the very confession of longing

I know not why I’m in joy and grief

I feel the night in broad day light

The dawn and the dusk are new

As I turn, your shadow appears

And my passions speak volumes

PEACE!

I would hope for things

That peace could bring

There will be no hate and war

But peace all over the world

Looking for opening new doors

Expecting no surprise

But peace of mind and harmony

Until the day is gone to horizon

A new desire will born

Life teaches both good and bad

Let evils be buried in the past

Leading our life to way of sublimity

Looking forward to embracing hope and peace

SILENCE OF THE NIGHT!

The earth under the sky hangs like a ball

Over the classic blue the night descends

And the earth falls asleep in a rush

I doubt you‘ve heard the silence of the night

That hushes so, hovering in the wind

The dense darkness does engulf our life

And its very mundanity keeps increasing

The night stays awake under the sky-blue

With our shattered dreams here and there

But our trifling hopes do keep us alive

Sahitya Ratnakar Dr Prasana Kumar Dalai.(DOB 07/06/1973) is a passionate Indian Author-cum- bilingual poet while a tremendous Asst Professor of English by profession in the Ganjam district of Odisha.He is an accomplished source of inspiration for young generation of India .His free verse on Romantic and melancholic poems appreciated by everyone. He belongs to a small typical village Nandiagada of Ganjam District, the state of Odisha.After schooling he studied intermediate and Graduated In Kabisurjya Baladev vigyan Mahavidyalaya then M A in English from Berhampur University PhD in language and literature and D.litt from Colombian poetic house from South America.He promotes his specific writings around the world literature and trades with multiple stems that are related to current issues based on his observation and experiences that needs urgent attention.He is an award winning writer who has achieved various laurels from the circle of writing worldwide.His free verse poems not only inspires young readers but also the ready of current time.His poetic symbol is right now inspiring others, some of which are appreciated by laurels of India and across the world. Many of his poems been translated in different Indian languages and got global appreciation. Lots of well wishes for his upcoming writtings and success in future.He is an award winning poet author of many best seller books.Recently he is awarded Rabindra nath Tagore and Gujarat Sahitya Academy for the year 2022 from Motivational Strips . A gold medal from world union of poets France & winner Of Rahim Karims world literary prize 2023.The government of Odisha Higher Education Department appointed him as a president to Governing body of Padmashree Dr Ghanashyam Mishra Sanskrit Degree College, Kabisurjyanagar.Winner of ” HYPERPOEM ” GUNIESS WORLD RECORD 2023.Recently he was awarded from SABDA literary Festival at Assam.Highest literary honour from Peru contributing world literature 2024.Prestigious Cesar Vellejo award 2024 & Highest literary honour from Peru.Director at Samrat Educational charitable Trust Berhampur, Ganjam Odisha.Vicedomini of world union of poets Italy. UHE awarded him prestigious Golden Eagle award for the contribution of world literature 2025.Completed 256 Epistolary poetry with Kristy Raines U SA..Bharat Seva Ratna National award 2025,International Glory award from Manam Foundation Hyderabad Telengana. On the eve of 79 Independence day got Rashtra Ratna award & Maa Bharati seva Sammana. 2025.Received Doctorate in Humanity and literature from Theophany university Haiti with UNESCO, AEADO and leaders of autonomy international. The prince of crimea and the Golden Horde from the house of Genghis Khan given prestigious “Honorary Bey”Received Sahitya Ratnakar from New Delhi 2025, Honorary Doctorate from RMF University collaborated with east and west university Florida United States Of America on the eve of International peace Day.Prestigious THE CONDOR OF ANDES from UHE Mexico 2025.INTERNATIONAL BOOKS1.Psalm of the Soul.2.Rise of New Dawn.3.secret Of Torment.4.Everything I never told you.5.Vision Of Life National Library Kolkata.6.100 Shadows of Dream.7.Timeless Anguish.8.Voice of Silence.9.I cross my heart from east to west . Epistolary poetry with Kristy Raines published in USA..

New oath 

New year anew 

calling again, 

Forgetting past memories 

Be careful now. 

As wrong as before 

Clean it up, 

First for the country 

go ahead. 

In a new day of new light 

Take a new oath, 

No matter how many obstacles come 

No one will be misled. 

Name: Imran Khan Raj 

Writer And Journalist.

Alumni, B.B.S., Padma Government College, 

Dohar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 

Imran Khan Raj was born on 12th October to a noble Muslim family in Dohar Upazila of Dhaka District In Bangladesh. He Passed HSC from Government Padma College of Dohar Upozila and completed graduation from the same college. Later, he enrolled in Masters in Management Department at Sheikh Borhanuddin Post Graduate College, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

So far, many stories, rhymes, poems written by him have been published in various newspapers and magazines. His favorite hobby is writing.

His published collective poetry books are – 71’s Raktasnat Bangla, Padma, Konkhane Rakhib Pranaam, Shrestha Bickeler Kavita, Bhasha Shahid, Diganter Neelima, Susheel Kavyasambahar, Humanity’s Demand and his published collective story book is – Nagar Phul.

The e-books published by Imran Khan Raj are destination unknown, motivation to move forward, illuminated rhymes. More of his books are on the way.

HAPPY NEW YEAR!

— From regular Synchronized Chaos contributing poet and author Jacques Fleury

              May your New Year be full of synchronistic

      songs of unwavering wonder…

         as you continue on your often Herculean paths to 

        your happily ever after…

Through all you’ve been 

       and yet not seen

Let new beginnings be your scene

Dew drops make all come anew

           Sun clouds will surely see you through

fantasies fanning mermaids and their memes

Open hearts can make wishes drive-thru

Cheers to Hope Horning in on Pipe Dreams 

                               and a Happy New Year to YOU!

Jacques Fleury is a Boston Globe featured Haitian-American Poet, Educator, Author of four books and literary arts student through Harvard University. His latest publication “You Are Enough: The Journey to Accepting Your Authentic Self”  and other titles are available at all Boston Public Libraries, the University of Massachusetts Healey Library, University of Wyoming, Askews and Holts Library Services in the United Kingdom, The Harvard Book Store, The Grolier Poetry Bookshop, Amazon etc…  He has been published in publications such as Spirit of Change Magazine, Wilderness House Literary Review, Muddy River Poetry Review, Litterateur Redefining World and Cooch Behar anthologies out of India, Poets Reading the News, the Cornell University Press anthology Class Lives: Stories from Our Economic Divide, Boston Area Small Press and Poetry Scene among others…Visit him at:  http://www.authorsden.com/jacquesfleury.