National University of Uzbekistan Faculty of Foreign Languages and Philology Department of Philology and Language Teaching (English) Student of Group 2505, Ruziyeva Sitora Odil qizi
Annotatsiya: Bugungi globallashuv davrida ingliz tili faqatgina oddiy muloqot vositasi emas, balki butun dunyoni bog‘lovchi tilga aylangan. Ushbu maqolada ingliz tilining dunyo tili sifatida shakllanish sabablari, uning tarixiy ildizlari hamda sabablari, uning tarixiy ildizlari hamda zamonaviy jamiyatdagi o‘rni yoritilgan. Aynan shu til orqali xalqlar o’rtasida bilim almashinuvi, madaniy yaqinlashuv va xalqaro hamkorlik ishlari amalga oshirilmoqda.
Kalit so‘zlar: ingliz tili, globallashuv, dunyo tili, xalqaro muloqot.
Abstract: In today’s era of globalization, the English language is not merely a simple means of communication, but has become a language that connects the entire world. This article examines the reasons behind the formation of English as a global language, its historical roots, and its role in modern society. Through this language, the exchange of knowledge between nations, cultural rapprochement, and international cooperation are actively carried out.
Keywords: English language, globalization, global language, international communication, cultural integration.
Аннотатция: В современную эпоху глобализации английский язык является не просто средством повседневного общения, но и превратился в язык, объединяющий весь мир. В данной статье освещаются причины формирования английского языка как мирового языка, его исторические корни, а также его роль в современном обществе. Именно через этот язык осуществляется обмен знаниями между народами, культурное сближение и развитие международного сотрудничества.
Ключивие слова: глобализация, английский язык, мировой язык, международное общение, культурный обмен
Introduction. In today’s rapidly developing era of globalization, languages play a crucial and leading role in communication among people. Among them, the English language holds a special place and is currently used as the primary means of international communication in many countries around the world. According to statistical data, the number of English speakers has exceeded 1.5 billion, making it one of the most widely spoken languages globally. The use of English as one of the main working languages in major international organizations such as the United Nations, the European Union, and the World Trade Organization clearly demonstrates its global significance. Moreover, a large proportion of contemporary scientific publications, modern technological developments, and internet content are produced in English.
The renowned linguist David Crystal, discussing the English language, states that “the language associated with powerful political and economic centers is the one that achieves global leadership.” In addition, the relatively simple structure, flexibility, and ease of learning of the English language have made it more accessible compared to many other languages.
In Uzbek literature, the power and importance of language have also been strongly emphasized. The great thinker Alisher Navoi promoted the idea that “respect for language is respect for the nation,” viewing language as the most valuable asset of a people. Today, learning English serves as an important tool for acquiring knowledge, understanding the world, and developing intercultural communication. Indeed, learning and knowing languages is never a burden for individuals; the more languages a person knows, the broader their worldview becomes.
Review of the Literature
Crystal, David (2003). In English as a Global Language, the author states that the emergence of English as a global language was mainly influenced by the political and economic dominance of the British Empire and the United States.
McCrum, Robert (2003). In The Story of English, McCrum explains that the adaptability of the English language and its ability to quickly adopt new words played a key role in its development as a global language.
Ethnologue Research (2022). According to Ethnologue, English is spoken by approximately 1.4 billion people worldwide as either a native or a second language.
UNESCO Reports. UNESCO reports indicate that 60–70 percent of scientific articles are published in English, which highlights the leading position of English in the field of science.
Graddol, David (2006). In his work English Next, Graddol demonstrates with evidence that English holds a dominant position as the language of the internet, technology, and international education.
Research Methodology
This study is aimed at scientifically examining the process through which the English language has developed into a global language, its historical roots, and its role in society on a global scale. In the course of the research, a theoretical and analytical method was employed. Through this method, scholarly literature on the formation of English as a global language, the views of linguists, and contemporary research findings were thoroughly analyzed.
In addition, a sociolinguistic approach was used to investigate the functional roles of English in modern society, including its use in international communication, science, education, cultural exchange, and information technology. This approach serves to demonstrate that English functions as an important tool for the exchange of knowledge and mutual understanding among different nations and cultures.
The study also applies a comparative method, through which English is compared with other widely spoken languages. This allows for a scientific examination of the simplicity, adaptability, and rapid global acquisition of the English language.
As the methodological foundation of the research, theories concerning the close relationship between language and society were taken into account, along with ideas found in Uzbek literature regarding the role of language in the life of a nation and its culture. In particular, the concept of respect for language put forward by the great writer Alisher Navoi is considered an important theoretical perspective for understanding the significance of the English language in the modern world.
Analysis and Results
The results of the analysis indicate the following:
The English language has become firmly established as a global means of communication through political and economic influence on a worldwide scale.
The dominance of English in the fields of science, technology, and business has positioned it as an essential international tool.
The spread of the English language through culture and media plays a significant role in shaping global social and cultural dynamics.
As a result, English is used not only as an official international language but also as a universal means of communication across numerous fields.
Conclusion
This article examined the status of the English language as a global language. Today, English is considered one of the most important languages on a global scale, as it facilitates effective communication in the fields of international interaction, science, education, and technology. Learning English is a key factor in personal development, professional growth, and competitiveness in the global arena. The research focused on identifying the problem of the global spread of English and the factors contributing to it.
The results of the analysis indicate that political and economic power, dominance in science and technology, as well as dissemination through culture and media have significantly contributed to the formation of English as an international means of communication. On this basis, it has been confirmed that English is not only effective in international communication but also serves as a practical and efficient tool across various fields.
Furthermore, the widespread global use of English continues to strengthen its position worldwide. The rapid development of information technologies, the expansion of international education programs, and the growing demand for highly qualified professionals in the global labor market have made proficiency in English a necessity. From this perspective, mastering the English language plays an important role in broadening the worldview of the younger generation and shaping them into competitive specialists who meet the demands of the modern world. Therefore, the scientific study of the factors that reinforce the status of English as a global language remains a relevant and essential task today.
References
Jalolov, J. J. (2012). Methodology of Teaching Foreign Languages. Tashkent: O‘qituvchi Publishing House, pp. 45–47.
Iriskhulov, M. T. (2009). Introduction to Linguistics. Tashkent: Fan Publishing House, pp. 112–114.
Turakulov, A. (2015). The Importance of Learning the English Language. Tashkent: Ma’naviyat Publishing House, pp. 27–29.
Rahmatullayev, Sh. (2010). Fundamentals of Modern Linguistics. Tashkent: University Publishing House, pp. 89–91.
Khudayberganova, D. (2018). Language and Society. Tashkent: Academic Publishing House, pp. 63–65.
Yuldashev, B. (2016). Language and Speech Culture. Tashkent: O‘qituvchi Publishing House, pp. 18–21.
Public External Debt and Macroeconomic Stability in Uzbekistan: A Review and Descriptive Analysis
Abstract: This article examines the evolution of public external debt in the Republic of Uzbekistan from 2015 to 2024, analyzing its pivotal role in the country’s transition from an autarkic, state-led model to an open market economy. The study posits that while the nominal stock of public debt surged following the 2017 exchange rate liberalization and subsequent investment boom, the debt-to-GDP ratio has stabilized within sustainable thresholds due to robust nominal GDP growth and prudent fiscal management (IMF, 2025).
Through a descriptive analysis of the evolving institutional framework, the research highlights the significance of the 2023 Law on State Debt and the maintenance of substantial international reserves in mitigating solvency risks (Ministry of Justice, 2023). However, the analysis also identifies persistent structural vulnerabilities, specifically the high degree of foreign currency denomination and contingent liabilities arising from State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs). Ultimately, the research concludes that public debt served as a critical macroeconomic stabilizer during external shocks, positioning Uzbekistan for a phase of fiscal consolidation and deeper domestic market development.
INTRODUCTION The economic trajectory of the Republic of Uzbekistan over the decade spanning 2015 to 2024 represents a paradigmatic case of a transition economy navigating the complex shift from a closed, import-substituting model to an open, export-oriented system. Central to this transformation has been the strategic utilization of public external debt. Historically characterized by low external leverage and strict capital controls, Uzbekistan initiated a profound structural reform agenda in 2017 that fundamentally altered its relationship with international capital markets.
The subject of public debt in Uzbekistan is of particular academic and policy relevance due to the speed of its accumulation following the liberalization of the foreign exchange market and the unique “high reserves, moderate debt” profile the country has maintained. Unlike many developing economies that accumulate debt due to fiscal profligacy or terms-of-trade shocks, Uzbekistan’s debt trajectory was a deliberate policy choice driven by an “investment hunger” to modernize aging infrastructure and industrial capacity (Urmonov, 2019). The period under review captures three distinct phases: the pre-reform era of repressed financial engagement (2015–2016), the liberalization shock and subsequent investment boom (2017–2020), and the era of consolidation and resilience amidst global poly-crises (2021–2024).
This analysis argues that while the nominal stock of public external debt has increased significantly—driven initially by statistical revaluation following the 2017 devaluation and subsequently by investment drives—the debt burden remains within sustainable thresholds. This sustainability is underpinned by a robust institutional framework and substantial external buffers in the form of gold and foreign exchange reserves. However, the report also emphasizes that the high dollarization of the debt portfolio leaves the fiscal balance exposed to exchange rate shocks, necessitating continued development of the domestic securities market.
LITERATURE REVIEW The relationship between public external debt and economic growth in Uzbekistan has become a focal point of academic inquiry following the liberalization reforms. The literature has evolved from general discussions of transition dynamics to rigorous empirical testing of debt thresholds and transmission channels.
Theoretical literature on transition economies typically fluctuates between the Keynesian view, where debt stimulates aggregate demand and funds critical infrastructure, and the Neoclassical view, where high debt crowds out private investment and equates to future taxes. In the specific context of Uzbekistan, scholars such as Urmonov (2019) have argued that in the initial phases of transition, external debt serves as a necessary substitute for limited domestic savings, which are essential for funding capital-intensive projects in energy, water supply, and transport infrastructure.
However, empirical findings regarding the impact of this debt on growth are mixed. Allakuliev (2022), investigating the 2010–2020 period, found a significant negative relationship between external debt and economic growth. His error correction model suggested that a 1% increase in external debt could lead to a 0.24% decrease in GDP growth, supporting the crowding-out hypothesis where debt service obligations divert resources from productive social investment.
Conversely, Sanakulova and Jamolov (2023) argue that diversifying debt instruments is critical for financial security, suggesting that the impact depends heavily on the efficiency of the funded projects rather than the volume of debt alone. Ganiyev (2022) further nuances this by indicating that while short-term impacts of liquidity injections are positive, long-term impacts turn negative if funds are not channeled into high-return sectors.
Institutional Framework and Risk Management. A distinct strand of literature focuses on the institutional mechanisms of debt management. Abdurakhmonov and Akramov (2020) were among the first to flag the rapid accumulation of debt post-2016, warning that while the debt-to-GDP ratio appeared moderate, the structural reliance on foreign currency borrowing posed significant exchange rate risks. Ahmedov (2021) expanded on this by emphasizing the necessity of institutional reforms, specifically the creation of an independent Debt Management Office (DMO) and the enhancement of transparency to mitigate the risks associated with State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs). These scholars collectively argue that Uzbekistan has reached a maturity stage where the focus must shift from access to risk mitigation.
METHODOLOGY Macroeconomic Context (2015-2024). To comprehensively analyze public debt dynamics, one must first situate these financial flows within the broader macroeconomic environment. The transition from a closed economic model to one integrated with global finance dictated the necessity and the capacity for external borrowing.
From Stagnation to Liberalization (2015-2017): Prior to the structural reforms of 2017, Uzbekistan’s macroeconomic framework was defined by a highly centralized command-and-control system. During 2015 and 2016, the economy operated under a dual exchange rate regime and strict capital controls. In 2016, the total external debt stock was recorded at approximately $14.7 billion, with public debt constituting a mere 6.0% of GDP (World Bank, 2019). This low leverage was not an indicator of financial robustness but rather a symptom of financial repression. The pivotal moment was the unification of the exchange rate in September 2017. The government allowed the Uzbek soum (UZS) to depreciate by approximately 50% to align the official rate with the market rate. This devaluation had an immediate, mechanical impact on debt statistics: the local currency value of foreign-denominated debt nearly doubled, causing the debt-to-GDP ratio to spike from ~6% to ~19% overnight (IMF, 2018). This statistical adjustment revealed the true leverage of the sovereign, which had previously been understated by the overvalued official exchange rate.
Investment Boom and Crisis Resilience (2018-2024): Following liberalization, the government launched the “New Uzbekistan” development strategy, characterized by a massive public investment drive. Given the shallowness of the domestic capital market, external borrowing became the primary financing mechanism for upgrading energy generation and transportation networks. The global COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 necessitated a shift in borrowing focus from infrastructure to counter-cyclical budget support. Despite the global recession, Uzbekistan was one of the few economies to maintain positive growth in 2020 (1.6%). This resilience was purchased, in part, through increased external leverage, with total Public and Publicly Guaranteed (PPG) debt rising to 34% of GDP by the end of 2020 (IMF, 2024).
From 2021 to 2024, the economy demonstrated further resilience to geopolitical shocks, specifically the war in Ukraine. Contrary to negative forecasts, Uzbekistan benefited from the relocation of capital and labor, with real GDP growing by over 6.0% annually in 2022, 2023, and 2024 (Central Bank of Uzbekistan, 2025). During this period, the government began to pivot toward fiscal consolidation, reducing the consolidated deficit to 3.2% of GDP in 2024 (IMF, 2025).
Figure 1: Selected Macroeconomic Indicators Indicator 2016 2020 2022 2023 2024 Real GDP Growth (%)
5.9 1.6 6.0 6.3 6.5
Inflation (CPI, avg, %)
8.0 12.9 11.4 10.0 9.6
Current Account (% GDP)
0.8 -5.0 -3.5 -8.6 -5.0
Fiscal Balance (% GDP)
1.4 -3.4 -3.5 -4.9 -3.2
Total Ext. Debt ($ bn)
14.7 34.0 44.9 53.6 64.1
Sources: Central Bank of Uzbekistan (2025); IMF (2024); World Bank (2024).
Evolution of Public External Debt Stock: While nominal figures show a steep upward trajectory, debt-to-GDP ratios indicate stabilization, highlighting the importance of the denominator effect (GDP growth) in maintaining sustainability.
Total external debt (public and private) expanded to $64.1 billion by 2024 (Central Bank of Uzbekistan, 2025). However, it is critical to focus on Public and Publicly Guaranteed (PPG) debt, which stabilized around 30–32% of GDP after a rapid rise between 2017 and 2020. This stabilization was achieved despite new borrowing, thanks to high nominal GDP growth driven by both real economic expansion and the GDP deflator (inflation).
Uzbekistan’s creditor profile has diversified significantly: Multilateral Creditors: Multilateral institutions remain the bedrock of Uzbekistan’s external financing. As of end-2024, multilateral creditors held approximately 52% of total PPG debt.7 The Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank group are the largest individual creditors. These loans are typically characterized by long maturities and favorable interest rates, deployed primarily for large-scale infrastructure projects in agriculture, water management, and energy.
Bilateral Creditors: Bilateral debt accounts for roughly 26% of the PPG portfolio.7 The People’s Republic of China (via China Eximbank and China Development Bank) and Japan (via JICA) are the dominant bilateral lenders.15 Financing from these sources is often tied to specific investment projects involving technology imports from the creditor nations, particularly in the energy and chemical sectors.
Commercial Creditors and Eurobonds: A defining feature of the 2019-2024 period was the emergence of commercial debt, primarily in the form of sovereign Eurobonds. Commercial debt grew from zero prior to 2019 to constitute roughly 13% of the total PPG debt by 2024.7 This shift signifies Uzbekistan’s transition from a pure aid-recipient status to an emerging market issuer, capable of attracting private global capital.
Figure 2. Republic of Uzbekistan: 2025 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; and Staff Report; IMF Country Report No. 25/143; May 29, 2025
A persistent structural vulnerability is the high degree of foreign currency denomination. As of late 2023, approximately 93.1% of public debt was denominated in foreign currencies, with the US Dollar accounting for ~60% (Ministry of Economy and Finance, 2023). This “Original Sin” exposes the sovereign balance sheet to exchange rate shocks; a depreciation of the soum immediately increases the debt service burden in local currency terms.
Sovereign Eurobond Issuances have been a critical tool for diversifying funding and establishing a benchmark yield curve. Market Entry (2019): Uzbekistan debuted in international capital markets in February 2019 with a dual-tranche issuance totaling $1 billion. This established the initial credit spread and allowed state-owned banks to access foreign capital (Cbonds, 2025). $500 million, 5-year maturity, yield of 4.75%.
$500 million, 10-year maturity, yield of 5.375%. This issuance established the initial credit spread for Uzbekistan and allowed state-owned banks and corporations to subsequently access international markets using the sovereign curve as a reference.
Local Currency Innovation (2020): In November 2020, Uzbekistan became the first CIS nation to issue a local currency (UZS) sovereign bond in international markets (a “Samurai” structure). This issuance of 2 trillion UZS (~$200 million) was a strategic move to transfer exchange rate risk to international investors (UNDP, 2022).
The ESG Pivot (2021–2024): Uzbekistan positioned itself as a regional leader in ESG financing by issuing the region’s first Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Bond in July 2021. This was followed by Green Bonds in October 2023 and May 2024. Proceeds from these bonds are strictly allocated to projects like water management, green transportation, and social infrastructure, audited by third parties like Sustainalytics (Ministry of Economy and Finance, 2022; UNDP, 2022).
Figure 3: Summary of Major Sovereign Eurobond Issuances (2019-2024) Issuance Date
Currency Amount (Millions)
Tenor (Years)
Yield/Co upon (%)
Bond Type Feb 2019 USD 500 5 4.75% Conventional Feb 2019 USD 500 10 5.375% Conventional
Nov 2020 USD 555 10 3.70% Conventional
Nov 2020 UZS 2,000,000 (UZS)
3 14.50% Local Currency
July 2021 USD/UZS ~870 (Equiv)
Mixed Various SDG Bond
Oct 2023 USD/UZS ~660 (Equiv)
Mixed Various Green Bond May 2024 USD 500 7 6.95% Conventional May 2024 EUR 500 4 5.10% Green Bond
May 2024 UZS 6,000,000 (UZS)
3 15.50% Local Currency Joint World Bank-IMF Debt Sustainability Analysis, accessed December 27, 2025
RESULTS Institutional and Legal Framework: The rapid accumulation of debt required a parallel evolution in the institutional architecture of debt management. The Law on State Debt (ZRU-836), adopted on April 29, 2023, the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan “On State Debt” (No. ZRU-836) codified fiscal rules that previously existed only in annual budget resolutions. Key provisions include:
The 60% Ceiling: A hard statutory cap on PPG debt at 60% of GDP. The 50% Trigger Mechanism: A mandatory “brake” mechanism requiring the Cabinet of Ministers to submit proposals to Parliament if debt exceeds 50% of GDP.
Centralization: The Ministry of Economy and Finance is designated as the sole authorized body for state borrowing, reducing fragmentation and tightening control over contingent liabilities (Ministry of Justice, 2023).
According to the Joint World Bank-IMF Debt Sustainability Framework for Low-Income Countries (LIC-DSF), Uzbekistan consistently maintains a Low risk of debt distress (IMF, 2025). Solvency and Liquidity: The country’s debt-carrying capacity is rated as Strong, largely due to its fortress balance sheet. International reserves covered more than 10 months of imports as of 2024/2025. The Gold Hedge: Gold constitutes roughly 80% of international reserves. This acts as a natural hedge; during times of geopolitical stress when borrowing costs might rise, gold prices typically appreciate, strengthening Uzbekistan’s balance sheet (S&P Global Ratings, 2025).
Stress Tests: The primary risks identified in stress tests are export shocks (given the reliance on commodities like gold and copper) and contingent liabilities from SOEs. The IMF models scenarios where the government assumes SOE debt equivalent to 2–5% of GDP, finding that debt remains sustainable even under such shocks (IMF, 2024).
CONCLUSION Between 2015 and 2024, Uzbekistan successfully navigated the complex transition from a debt-averse, closed economy to a moderately indebted, open economy integrated into global capital markets. The accumulation of public external debt during this period was not a symptom of fiscal distress, but a deliberate instrument of statecraft used to finance the structural modernization of the economy. The descriptive analysis supports the conclusion that the rapid growth in debt stock was largely an arithmetic consequence of exchange rate unification and a strategic response to the country’s “investment hunger.”
The resulting debt burden remains sustainable, anchored by the Law on State Debt, a credible Medium-Term Debt Management Strategy, and—crucially—a fortress balance sheet of international reserves heavily weighted in gold.
For macroeconomic stability, the evidence suggests that public debt has acted as a stabilizer. It enabled the government to maintain growth during the COVID-19 pandemic through counter-cyclical spending and allowed for the financing of critical infrastructure without depleting domestic savings. The high dollarization of the debt portfolio leaves the fiscal balance exposed to exchange rate shocks, and the large footprint of SOEs creates significant contingent liabilities.
As Uzbekistan moves beyond 2024, the focus of debt policy is shifting from access to consolidation. The challenge for the next decade will be to deepen domestic capital markets to reduce FX risk and to foster private sector growth that can replace state-led borrowing as the primary engine of development. The successful issuance of local currency bonds in international markets and the adherence to the 60% debt ceiling suggest that the authorities are well-positioned to manage these challenges, maintaining Uzbekistan’s reputation as a prudent borrower in the emerging market landscape.
References
Abdurakhmonov, A., & Akramov, K. (2020). Public debt dynamics in Uzbekistan: Challenges and opportunities. Center for Economic Research.
Ahmedov, I. (2021). Institutional reforms for effective public debt management in Uzbekistan. Journal of Central Asian Economics, 12(3), 45-60.
Allakuliev, A. (2022). The impact of external debt on economic growth in Uzbekistan. Oriental Renaissance: Innovative, educational, natural and social sciences, 2(5), 295-305.
Cbonds. (2025). Uzbekistan Sovereign Bond Issues 2019-2024. Retrieved from Cbonds Database.
Central Bank of Uzbekistan. (2025). Balance of Payments and International Investment Position: Annual Report 2024.
Ganiyev, D. A. (2022). The relationship between public debt and economic growth – the case of Uzbekistan. Economics and Innovative Technologies, 3/2022.
International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2018). Republic of Uzbekistan: 2018 Article IV Consultation. IMF Country Report No. 18/117.
International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2024). Republic of Uzbekistan: 2024Article IV Consultation. IMF Country Report No. 24/210.
Ministry of Economy and Finance of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (2022). Uzbekistan SDG Bond Allocation and Impact Report.
Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (2023). Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan “On State Debt” (No. ZRU-836).
Sanakulova, B., & Jamolov, M. (2023). Analyzing the Impact of External Debt on The Financial Security of the Country. Green Economy and Development, 1(8).
S&P Global Ratings. (2025). Research Update: Uzbekistan Upgraded To ‘BB’.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2022). Uzbekistan Development Finance Bond Impact & Allocation Report.
Urmonov, J. J. (2019). Investments and Infrastructure Development in Transition Economies.
World Bank. (2019). Uzbekistan: Joint World Bank-IMF Debt Sustainability Analysis.
INTERCULTURAL SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES: ANALYSIS OF KOREAN AND UZBEK FUNERAL RITUALS
Nilufar Yoldoshova, SamDChTI, Faculty of Oriental Studies,
Department of Philology and Language Teaching (Korean),
1st year, Group 2502
Abstract:
Funeral rituals of the Korean and Uzbek peoples each possess unique cultural values and traditions of respect for the deceased. However, significant differences exist in both form and meaning. These differences are primarily shaped by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Shamanism in Korean society, and by the combination of Islam and national customs in Uzbek society. Although both cultures emphasize communal unity, deep respect for elders, and honoring the memory of the deceased, the organizational process, symbolic expression, and spiritual interpretation of funeral rituals show notable distinctions. This article explores the similarities and differences between the funeral practices of these two cultures.
A funeral ritual is a ceremony and set of customs associated with burying the deceased. Funeral practices have evolved since the emergence of humanity, influenced by geographic environment, social life, human capabilities, scientific understanding, and worldviews. Even in the Paleolithic period, 40,000–18,000 years ago, burial rituals were performed. Over time, funeral practices became integrated with religious rituals and customs. Every culture has specific forms, rules, and procedures for funerals. Through these rituals, societies bid farewell to their members, preserve their memory, and, according to their beliefs, ensure the peace of the soul. Funerals are not only a time of grief and mourning but also an opportunity to reflect on the meaning of life and reinforce human values.
The main purposes of a funeral ritual are:
Respect for the deceased: This is the final expression of honor and reverence for the deceased.
Gathering and remembrance: Relatives and friends come together to share positive memories and bid farewell.
Compassion: To show the deceased’s close ones that they are not alone and to comfort them in their loss.
Spiritual and religious beliefs: In many religions, funeral rituals represent an important stage for the soul’s transition, purification, or return to God.
Korean Funeral Rituals
In Korean society, the funeral process is not only a farewell to the deceased but also an important cultural event reflecting their religious, philosophical, and social values. These rituals are influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Shamanism, all of which emphasize respect for death as the final stage of human life.
Korean funeral traditions primarily developed under Confucian influence. In Confucianism, filial piety (효, hyo) toward parents and ancestors is the highest virtue. Therefore, children, especially the eldest son or grandson, play a critical role in the burial process. Buddhism emphasizes the rebirth of the soul, while Shamanism involves beliefs connected to spiritual entities and ceremonies.
Historically, funerals were held at home, but today they take place in specialized funeral halls (장례식장, jangnyesikjang) or hospital-associated centers. The “Jesa” ritual involves preparing food for the deceased every day for 49 days after death, reflecting the belief that the soul should not remain hungry. Typically, the funeral lasts three days:
Day 1: Preparing the body for burial (washing, shrouding, placing in position).
Day 2: Receiving guests and conducting condolence ceremonies.
Day 3: Burial or cremation (화장, hwajang).
Key stages of the ceremony:
The body is cleansed and wrapped in a white shroud, then placed before the memorial table (향안) with flowers, candles, and a photograph of the deceased. The chief mourner (상주, sangju), usually the eldest son, is responsible for all organizational duties. Guests bow deeply twice to the deceased and once to the family. Traditionally, only men served as sangju, but today women also participate, reflecting gender equality trends.
Guests give condolence money (부의금, bueuigeum) to support the bereaved family and cover funeral expenses:
Standard amount: 50,000–100,000 WON (approx. $50–100)
Close relatives: 100,000–500,000 WON
Business partners: 50,000–200,000 WON
Commonly: 50,000 WON
Food and beverages, including soju (소주), are served, and guests often remain until evening to provide emotional support. Traditionally, the deceased was buried, but modern cremation (화장, hwajang) has become increasingly common due to limited land resources and environmental considerations. Some families create keepsakes or memorial balls from the ashes to honor the memory of the deceased. Participants wear dark or black simple clothing; historically, families wore special mourning garments (상복, sangbok). Loud voices, jokes, or laughter are considered inappropriate.
Uzbek Funeral Rituals
Uzbek funeral practices have deep historical roots and are primarily shaped by Islamic religion and local customs. These ceremonies serve not only to send off the deceased but also to provide social compassion and spiritual support for their family and community.
Islam is the primary influence on Uzbek funerals, and all processes are carried out according to the Sunni Hanafi school of thought. Additionally, ancient Turkic and Persian cultural practices, such as holding memorial ceremonies on specific days, are observed. The focus is on the soul’s peace and salvation in the afterlife. Funerals usually occur in three main locations: the deceased’s home, mosque, and cemetery. Burial is typically conducted within 24 hours but is not mandatory on the day of death. The one-day ceremony includes washing (ghusl), shrouding, funeral prayer (janaza), and burial. After burial, family and friends recite the Qur’an and prepare a communal meal.
Shrouding: The body is wrapped in a white cloth symbolizing purity and equality.
Funeral prayer (janaza): Performed in the mosque or open space as a final collective prayer.
Burial: The deceased is laid on their side facing the Qibla, and each participant throws soil three times.
Financial support: Guests provide condolence money (sadaqa).
Only traditional burial is practiced; cremation is forbidden under Islamic law. Simple headstones are placed on graves, and elaborate structures are strictly prohibited. Participants wear simple black or white clothing; women cover their heads with scarves. Loud crying or wailing is strictly forbidden, as it may disturb the deceased’s soul.
Post-funeral ceremonies:
3rd day: Qur’an recitation and remembrance
7th day: Family and close relatives gather
40th day: Broader community participation
1-year memorial: Final remembrance
Similarities (despite differences):
Respect for the deceased: Both cultures view the funeral as a way to honor the deceased and fulfill one’s duty.
Family centrality: Close relatives, particularly the eldest son or closest male relative, play an essential role.
Gathering and rituals: Both traditions include communal gatherings (condolence meetings, meals) as part of mourning.
Dress code: Wearing dark or somber clothing is customary in both cultures, with Uzbek attire being modest and Islamic-compliant.
Differences:
Korean rituals are influenced by multiple religions; Uzbek rituals are primarily Islamic.
Korean funerals last three days, whereas Uzbek funerals are completed within 24 hours.
Burial method: cremation is common in Korea, while Uzbekistan strictly practices underground burial.
Commemoration practices: Koreans perform extended ancestral rites, while Uzbeks focus on prayer for the deceased.
Korean ceremonies often emphasize the eldest child’s role, while Uzbek ceremonies involve the entire community.
Financial support: Koreans give “bueuigeum,” while Uzbeks provide “sadaqa.”
Venue: Korean funerals often occur in specialized halls, whereas Uzbek ceremonies are held at home, mosque, and cemetery.
Post-funeral rituals: Korea observes a 49-day cycle, while Uzbekistan has ceremonies on the 3rd, 7th, 40th day, and 1 year.
Conclusion:
Korean and Uzbek funeral practices reflect unique cultural and religious characteristics. Korean rituals emphasize ancestral worship and family traditions, while Uzbek rituals are based on Islamic beliefs and community involvement. In both cultures, funerals honor the deceased and console the bereaved. These rituals are an important part of cultural heritage, passed down through generations.
References:
“Korean Funeral Customs” – National Folk Museum of Korea, 2015
“Death and Funeral Culture in Korea” – Seoul National University Press, Seoul, 2018
“Korean Traditional Culture Series” – Korea University Publishing, Korea, 2020
“Uzbek Folk Rituals” – Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, 2017, pp. 156–189
“Islam and Uzbek Traditions” – Muslim Board of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, 2019
When we look back at the turn of the 20th century, we are flooded with a general feeling that the old times were good. The people were good, and its reason too was obvious, they were God-fearing, believed in goodness, visited holy places, undertook pilgrimages, and, it was joint family system, which was helpful in nurturing fellow feeling, empathy and compassion.
As the time passed, modernism took over, which meant the fall of the agrarian life, and the onset of the mechanical age. The peace of the village life was lost to the lure of the market town. As the times moved forward, the village was discarded and the people started migrating to the city. Villages were left barren and this process has kept pace even today. Migration from the villages to the cities is still going on unchecked.
What I am going to focus here is how the quality of man has dwindled over time, as machination has increased. Prosperity appears to have grown but along with it, men who enjoy thousands of amenities, have lost something very precious. I can draw a line too, with which many perceptive readers may not be in agreement. There was a generation which started working during the seventies. Before them, there was a generation of great scholars who inhabited the universities. The 2nd generation starts with seventies, in which the young men who joined services, were still touched with some sort of idealism. Actually, sixties and seventies were the times when in our country the socialist movement was in full swing, and reading Russian literature was in vogue. These young men found idealism injected into their blood and their thought too.
The generation which took to work in eighties too was touched by that idealism. They had a feeling of being true to their profession. These were the times when people felt that copying was a moral aberration. Teachers still believed in teaching the students most of the times without getting any remuneration. Morality was still a subject of debate in Colleges and Universities.
However, nineties saw an abrupt change in the sensibility of the people, and it transformed the sensibility of the time as well. This was the moment when ultra-modern times had set in. Desktop had given way to the laptop, mobiles to smart phone. These were the times when people realized there was a city called Kota in Rajasthan. Now, the race was between money and success. The more the money, the greater the success. The students were after packages. Teachers were after tuitions. It was a world of the go-getters. Those who had money could get seats in medical colleges.
It was here that the growing civilization completely shed its idealistic credentials. Now, the teachers, the students and even parents had only one passion. Job. Money was no consideration. And during these times, we gave legitimacy to a thousand things which were considered taboo in previous times. The most important thing were money and success, followed by a sense of freedom, which shook the family from its foundations.
Today, the teachers have lost all idealistic orientation. Religiosity has increased, though its internal content is missing. There is more and more knowledge and great and great success, yet students and even teachers lack basics of human behaviour. In other words, knowledge has given them fat marks sheets, top positions, without bringing to them the most precious virtue which was essential to make life meaningful: wisdom.
Today, we have a generation which has no faith in wisdom. We have administrators who have no faith in creativity. Paperwork, data, and keeping the teachers busy is the basic framework of educational policies. We know a thousand things, without understanding the basics of human character. The electronic revolution and now the AI have further reduced the man-hours which man could use for himself. The great issue today, in my opinion is, man has no time for himself, for his family, and for his mind. It is the phase when philosophy is dead, the philosopher is dead. The academic has been reduced to a paper tiger. He is forced to become a scholar where his only job is to cut and paste the available knowledge, which makes no sense to the man in the street.
We are passing through the worst phase of human development where facilities have increased, but man’s humanity is in decline. We need to arrest this fall. We need to return to a routine where we have free time for ourselves. Where we could slow down the pace of time. We need to revert back and retrieve the values we have lost in our passion for growth.
Dr. Jernail Singh Anand, with an opus of 180 plus books, is Laureate of the Seneca, Charter of Morava, Franz Kafka and Maxim Gorky awards. His name adorns the Poets’ Rock in Serbia. Anand is a towering literary figure whose work embodies a rare fusion of creativity, intellect, and moral vision.
Fergana State University, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Department of English Philology
ziyodamuradilova@icloud.com
Abstract: In today’s digital information landscape, social media has profoundly influenced journalism. This article explores the role of social networks in journalism, emphasizing their speed of information dissemination, interactivity, and integration with traditional mass media. It also discusses the main challenges faced by professionals — disinformation, manipulation, and the impact of algorithmic filters. The findings reveal that while digital platforms encourage the development of journalism, they also threaten its traditional values. Therefore, it is essential for journalists to adapt to new technologies, apply fact-checking methods, and establish stronger connections with their audiences.
Keywords: social media, journalism, disinformation, media technologies, information dissemination, fact-checking, audience.
Over the past decade, social media has become an inseparable part of everyday life and has brought radical transformations to the field of journalism. Information now spreads within seconds, and users not only consume news but also take an active part in its creation and distribution. This has blurred the boundaries between professional and citizen journalism.
The main objective of this research is to analyze the impact of social media on journalism, focusing on information reliability, interactivity, and the evolving relationship between the media and the audience. As traditional journalism faces new challenges, understanding how digital platforms reshape journalistic values and practices has become crucial. This study applies a qualitative research method, analyzing academic sources, expert opinions, and practical examples from platforms such as Facebook, Telegram, Instagram, and X (formerly Twitter).
Comparative analysis was conducted between traditional media (newspapers, television) and social media-based journalism. Fact-checking practices, information verification mechanisms, and the influence of algorithmic filtering on audience behavior were also examined.
The research involved reviewing reports from international media institutions (e.g., Reuters Institute, BBC, Oxford University Press) and local media outlets (Kun.uz, Daryo.uz) to identify trends in digital journalism. The findings indicate that social media has reshaped journalism in several ways:
1. Speed and accessibility: Information circulates in real time, increasing the demand for rapid publication. 2. Interactivity: Journalists now engage directly with audiences through comments, messages, and live sessions. 3. Disinformation threat: False or manipulated information spreads faster and more widely than verified news. 4. Algorithmic control: Social media platforms filter content according to user preferences, creating “echo chambers” that limit exposure to diverse viewpoints.
These changes have led to both positive and negative consequences. While social media has democratized access to information, it has also raised ethical and professional concerns in journalism.
Social media has opened new opportunities for journalists by offering direct communication channels, instant feedback, and access to global audiences. However, it also presents challenges that question the very essence of professional journalism.
The increasing number of “fake news,” clickbait culture, and the pressure of advertising and sponsorship weaken editorial independence and accuracy. Journalists must now not only report but also verify, interpret, and defend the truth amid an overload of online information.
Digital literacy and fact-checking skills have become fundamental competencies for modern journalists. Media organizations must invest in training and technological tools to detect misinformation and protect ethical journalism. Furthermore, collaboration between media outlets and technology companies is essential to combat algorithmic bias and promote transparency in information flow.
Social media represents a turning point in the evolution of journalism. It has accelerated the dissemination of information and strengthened audience engagement, yet simultaneously exposed journalism to disinformation, manipulation, and declining trust.
The future of journalism depends on how effectively professionals integrate new technologies while maintaining truth, accuracy, and ethical integrity. Journalists must evolve into digital communicators who not only inform but also educate and empower audiences in the age of information abundance.
References
1. Karimova, D. (2023). Foundations of Digital Journalism. Tashkent: National University of Uzbekistan Press. 2. Jenkins, H. (2019). Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. New York: NYU Press. 3. Kovach, B., & Rosenstiel, T. (2021). The Elements of Journalism. New York: Crown Publishing. 4. President of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (2022). Decree on Measures to Ensure Information Security and Counter Disinformation.
5. Castells, M. (2020). The Rise of the Network Society. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
6. Kun.uz. (2024). “The Problem of Fake News on Social Media and the Responsibility of Journalists.” 7. Reuters Institute Digital News Report (2023). Oxford University Press. 8. Shiraliyeva, N. (2022). “The Role of Social Media in Modern Journalism.” Journal of Philology and Mass Media, No. 2.
Most people grow up believing that failure is something to be ashamed of – a sign of weakness, a symbol of defeat. We avoid it, fear it, and do everything we can to prevent it. But what if the failure is not the end of your story, but the start of something greater? What is the first fall you take is actually the beginning of your rise?
Failure is not a wall that blocks your path; it is a doorway that leads you forward. Every person who has achieved something meaningful has, at some point, stumbled, struggled, and started again. The truth is simple yet powerful: failure is the first step to success.
Failure and Success work together. We often think failure and success are opposites – that one cancels the other out. But in reality, they are two sides of the same coin. Think about the most successful people in the world – entrepreneurs, athletes, artistes, or scientists. What do they all have in common? They have all faced setbacks, rejections, and failures. But instead of giving up, they learned from their experiences, adapted, and kept moving forward. Failure is not proof that you cannot succeed – it is evidence that you are trying. Every mistake, every “no”, and every setback is simply a part of the process that shapes your future achievements.
Failure teaches us valuable lessons. When you succeed, you celebrate. But when you fail, you reflect – and that is where the real growth happens. Failure teaches lesson that success never could. It reveals what does not work, highlights your weaknesses, and forces you to find new ways forward.
Thomas Edison once said after thousands of failed attempts to invent the light bulb, “I have not failed. I have just found 1,000 ways that will not work.” Those “failures” were not wasted – they were experiments that led him closer to success. Failure gives you feedback. It helps you adjust your strategy, sharpen your skills, and develop patience. The greatest advantage of failure is the wisdom it leaves behind. Each mistake carries a message – if you are willing to listen. Failure builds strengths and resilience
If life were easy, success would lose its meaning. The obstacles you face and the failures you experience are what make your victories valuable. Every time you rise after falling, you grow stronger.
Resilience – the ability to bounce back – is one of the most powerful traits a person can develop. It does not come from comfort; it comes from challenge. When you fail and keep going, you prove to yourself that you can endure disappointment and still move forward. Just like muscles strengthen through resistance, your character strengthens your adversity. With each setback, you learn persistence, self-discipline and courage – the very qualities needed for lasting success.
Failure helps you find the right path. Not every failure means you are unworthy – sometimes it simply means you are going in the wrong direction. Failure is often a signal, a form of guidance. It pushes you to rethink your goals and adjust your course.
Take Walt Disney, for example. Early in his career, he was fired from a newspaper job because he “lacked imagination.” That same man went on to create one of the most imaginative companies in the world. His early failure did not end his dream – it redirected it.
Failure often helps you discover what truly matters to you. When something does not work out, you are forced to ask yourself, “Is this really what I want?” That self-reflection can lead to a clearer vision and a stronger sense of purpose. Courage comes from daring to fail. It takes courage to face failure with an open heart. Many people never achieve their dreams simply because they are afraid to fail. But courage is not the absence of fear – it is the decision to keep moving despite it.
When you dare to fail, you give yourself permission to grow. You stop waiting for perfect conditions and start learning through experience. You realize that mistakes do not define you – they refine you.
Those who succeed the most are not the ones who never fall; they are the ones who refuses to stay down. Every great inventor, artist, and leader has failed more times than they have succeeded. But each failure taught them something that made the next attempt stronger.
Failure is temporary, but its lessons last forever.
Failure might feel final, but it is never permanent. The pain or disappointment you feel today will fade – but the lessons you learn will stay with you for life. Success often appears right after your hardest fall. The problem is, most people give up one attempt too early. They stop just before the breakthrough. But those who keep trying, who view failure as temporary, are the ones who eventually achieve greatness.
Failure teaches resilience, patience and humility – all qualities that prepare you for success when it finally arrives. It shapes you into a stronger, wiser version of yourself.
Turning failure into fuel Once you stop fearing failure, you can start using it as fuel. Every “no” becomes motivation. Every setback becomes an opportunity to improve. Instead of asking “Why did this happen to me?” ask, “What can I learn from that?”
People like Albert Einstein, and J.K. Rowling all faced rejection and failure before achieving success. What set them apart was not luck – it was persistence. They kept moving forward, turning failure into momentum. The truth is failure is not your enemy. It’s your greatest ally, if you let it be. It sharpens your focus, strengthens your will, and shows you how much you truly care about your dream.
Conclusion: Failure is the Foundation of Success
Failure is not something to hide from; it’s something to embrace. It’s the price we pay for growth, for knowledge, for mastery. Every successful story is built on moments of defeat that were transformed into lessons.
So do not let failure to stop you – let it shape you. Every time you fall and rise again, you become wiser, stronger, and closer to your goal. Remember, the first step to success isn’t a perfect start — it’s the courage to begin, fail, and begin again.
Because in the end, success is not about never falling; it’s about always getting back up. And that journey – the one that starts with failure – is where real success begins.
Zaxina Tohirova is 12 years old, born inKashkadarya, Uzbekistan. She is 7th grade student at Karshi Presidential School. She is passionate about drawing pictures, writing/reading articles and reading books. In her spare time, she usually searches some interesting things, watches action movies and goes for a walk. She spends her weekends with her family. She started writing articles recently and found it very interesting. She is going to write more articles in the future.
