AN OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS:                A SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE 

Halimova Nilufar Hakimovna

A student of Bukhara state university

Abstract: Linguistics is a vast disciplinary field that explores the structure, acquisition, and usage of language. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the main branches in linguistics from a scientific standpoint. The branches discussed include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and neurolinguistics. Each branch is described in terms of its primary focus, methodologies, and contributions to our understanding of language. Additionally, the article highlights the interconnectedness of these branches and their relevance in various research domains.

Keywords: linguistics, branches, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics.

      The interplay between language and science has played a pivotal role in shaping our understanding of linguistic phenomena. This introduction outlines the significance of scientific approaches in the study of language and introduces the main branches of linguistics that will be explored in this article.

      Phonetics is the study of the sounds of human speech. It involves analyzing and categorizing the different sounds, known as phonemes, that are used in spoken language. Phonetics examines the physical properties of speech sounds, such as how they are produced by the vocal organs, as well as the auditory properties, such as how they are perceived by the human ear. By studying phonetics, linguists can gain insights into the patterns and variations of speech sounds across different languages and dialects.

      Phonology is a subfield of linguistics that studies the systematic organization of sounds in language. It focuses on the ways in which sounds function and interact within a particular language or languages. Phonology examines the rules and patterns governing the sound structure of words, phrases, and sentences, including the study of phonemes, phonological processes, phonotactics, and the prosodic features of language such as stress, intonation, and rhythm.

Phonology involves analyzing the inventory of sounds in a language, known as phonemes, and understanding their distribution and patterns. Phonemes are abstract units of sound that can be contrasted to distinguish meaning in a particular language. For example, the sounds /p/ and /b/ in English are phonemes because they can differentiate words like “pat” and “bat.”

      Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of words. It examines how words are constructed from smaller units called morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units of language. Morphemes can be classified into two types: free morphemes, which can stand alone as words (e.g., “cat,” “run”), and bound morphemes, which are attached to other morphemes to create words (e.g., “un-” in “undo,” “-ed” in “walked”).

      Morphology analyzes the different ways in which morphemes can combine to form words. This includes studying affixation, which involves adding prefixes or suffixes to words (e.g., adding “un-” to “happy” to create “unhappy”), as well as other processes such as compounding (e.g., combining “black” and “board” to form “blackboard”) and derivation (e.g., adding “-er” to “teach” to create “teacher”).

      Syntax delves into the arrangement of words to form grammatical sentences. It studies the rules and principles governing sentence structure and the relationships between words and phrases. This section explores various theoretical frameworks in syntax, such as generative grammar and dependency grammar.

      Semantics examines the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences in language. It explores how meaning is constructed and interpreted, focusing on lexical and compositional semantics. This section provides an overview of semantic theories and the tools used in semantic analysis.

      Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics that studies how context influences the meaning and interpretation of language. It focuses on the ways in which people use language in actual speech situations to achieve their communication goals.

Unlike semantics, which deals with the literal meaning of words and sentences, pragmatics examines how meaning is constructed through the use of language in specific contexts. It explores how speakers and listeners make inferences, convey intentions, and interpret meaning based on shared knowledge, social norms, and cultural conventions.

Pragmatics also investigates various aspects of language use, such as deixis (the way language refers to the context in which it is used), implicature (the implied meaning that goes beyond the literal meaning of words), speech acts (the actions performed through speech, such as making requests or giving orders), and politeness strategies.

      Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society intersect. It examines how language is influenced by various social factors such as class, gender, ethnicity, and age, as well as how language use reflects and shapes social identity and relationships. Sociolinguists investigate language variation and change, language attitudes and ideologies, multilingualism, language policy and planning, and language in interaction. They use a variety of methods, including surveys, interviews, and observations, to analyze language use in different social contexts and communities. The field of sociolinguistics helps us understand how language is used and interpreted in different social settings, and how it contributes to social cohesion or inequality.

      Psycholinguistics investigates how language and cognition interact. It explores processes involved in language comprehension, production, and acquisition. This section delves into psycholinguistic experimental paradigms, language processing models, and language disorders.

      Psycholinguistics combines knowledge from various fields, including linguistics, psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience, to explore the mental processes underlying language. Researchers in this field often conduct experiments to investigate topics such as language development in children, language processing in adults, language disorders, and the relationship between language and thought.

      Psycholinguistics has practical applications in fields such as education, speech therapy, and language technology. By understanding the cognitive processes involved in language, researchers can develop interventions and tools to facilitate language learning and communication.

      Neurolinguistics studies the neural basis of language processing and production. It examines how the brain processes linguistic information and the neural correlates of language disorders. The section highlights neuroimaging techniques, language localization, and theories of language representation in the brain.

      This concluding section emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of linguistics and the importance of scientific methods in advancing our understanding of language. It summarizes the key contributions and interconnections between the main branches of linguistics, paving the way for future research and discoveries in this dynamic field.

References:

1. Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structures. Walter de Gruyter.

2. Ladefoged, P., & Johnson, K. (2011). A course in phonetics. Cengage Learning.

3. Hayes, B. (2009). Introductory phonology. John Wiley & Sons.

4. Bauer, L. (2003). Introducing linguistic morphology. Edinburgh University Press.

5. Saeed, J. (2009). Semantics. John Wiley & Sons.

6. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford University Press.

7. Wardhaugh, R. (2010). An introduction to sociolinguistics. John Wiley & Sons.

8. Field, J. (2003). Psycholinguistics: The Key Concepts. Routledge.

9. Poeppel, D., & Hickok, G. (2004). Towards a new functional anatomy of language. Cognition, 92(1-2), 1-12.

10. Campbell, L. (2013). Historical linguistics: An introduction. MIT Press.

KHALIMOVA NILUFAR HAKIMOVNA

is the student of Bukhara State University, Foreign languages faculty.
Active participant of more than 200 national and international competitions, conferences, forums, winner of a number of competitions. 

A graduate of the Bukhara School of Young Journalists, the youngest ambassador in Uzbekistan, a member of the international organization “Noel Lorenz House of Fiction” (NLHF), the organization “APEU” of El Salvador, the international organizations “Wisdom University”.  She is the author of the “CREATIVE YOUTH” project organized on the scale of the republic.  IELTS certificate holder.
Nilufar Khalimova is author of “My sun is my mother” (2018), “My shiny Homeland (2019). “Adventure’s of Aral (2020) books and the translator of called “Telechild” which was written by uzbek children’s writer Khudayberdi Tukhtaboyev.

She is author of scientific articles called:
“Convenient mechanisms to further increase the quality of education in the form of distance education”;
“The psychology of modern education”;
“The role of women in society”;
“Formation of fluent speech in children”;
“Patriotism and its importance in involving young people in the armed forces”;
“Ancient Khorezm State scientific research on the terms of “BIG KHOREZM”, “ANCIENT KHOREZM” and “KHOREZM” and others.
She took the award “Nelson Mandela 2022” of the German Writers’ Association.
Participant and grand prize winner of the “Great Silk Road International Literary and Scientific Festival” held by the Writers’ Union of Germany, Ukraine and Turkey.
Her poems and articles are published on the district, regional and national level, as well as published in newspapers, magazines and literary websites of countries such as USA, Turkey, India, Germany, Ukraine, Malaysia.

I love Uzbekistan

It is unique in the world

He is my pride

Mercy is a fiery mother

I am still a student

I have a bright future

Tie up your country

Do it, the beating

Dilmurodova Dilfuza was born January 9, 2010. She is a student and poet.

Do costs of renewable energy increase generation? An empirical test across Eurasian countries

Today energy is an important resource in every nation. The countries conduct various energy policies to distribute daily consumption to avoid shortages. According the goal SDG 7 of United Nation access to affordable energy by 2030, (UNSD, 2021) and models of World Energy Model (WEM), Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP), Global Energy and Climate (GEC) which adopted by International Energy Agency (IEA) to refer transition for renewable energy by 2050.(IEA, 2022) Hence, renewables are developing sector-by-sector and region-by-region to transform from traditional into alternative energy and replace to diversify the energy sector.     

Implementation of renewable energy by government and investor impose in differently from both side. Financing from government require subsidizing to equalize for internal or external price of energy. The main cost of renewable energy by government is subsidizing for public power system.(Zhao et al., 2014) Government can subsidy such as interest rate, financing entirely of the project, providing in-tariff policy etc,. In previous years for constructing traditional energy power generation plants have been commissioned 61% state-owned enterprise and 35% from private companies.(Steffen, 2018).

Additionally it depends on government budget to allocate expenditure for realization of electricity or energy plants. In terms of government expenditure, investment incentives are the main important indicator to finance Renewable Energy Sources projects respectively. Moreover, projects of RE should be considered with stakeholders and government in different stages (Lam & Law, 2018) and accept Energy Service and Power Purchase Agreements. (Ottinger & Bowie, 2016) But, Power Purchase Agreement in some countries is not implemented and this risk to financing RE projects, the costs which include capital flow can be decreasing concerning investment of private sector that give the result decreasing of development RE plants.(Taghizadeh-hesary & Yoshino, 2020) According financing by government, RE supports by international organizations on the frame of SDG 7(International Renewable Energy Agency, 2022).

So, initial capital or investment define the government expenditure and finance flows by international organization (some emerging countries receive).Considering the cost of renewable energy we can explore the improvement and implementation the projects of RE. Compare with creation RE technology with today’s update equipment, it is differ from with price decreasing and installation is cheaper than previous technology and it has increased confidence for using (Ellabban et al., 2014). Especially wind energy supposed one of the low cost technology (Østergaard et al., 2020)(Blaabjerg et al., 2014) 

Operation and maintenance cost for RE installation is more sensitive because of different type soft energy, such as, solar PV, wind, hydro, geothermal, biomass etc,. Thus, estimation and analysis reveal some uncertainty.(Wilson, 1984) We used a cross-country dataset of 72 Eurasian countries for the period 2019 and our proxy variable is capital cost the other variables are independent vector variables which reveal the significance to the model.  

In our study we take one proxy variable: initial cost for installation RE or capital cost that understanding with government and investor costs, investments from international organization that we use jointly as capital investment. Operation and maintenance (thereafter O&M) cost we omit because of opacity distribution in this case and it derives from capacity of generation installation in total.(Wilson, 1984) According the positive relationship between RE generation and costs, we find that costs are the main indicator and without any investment have not development in this field.     

Our results show that capital cost has a positive relationship with RE generation. Moreover, this study impact to invest on RE generation to achieve for sustainable and affordable energy resources. This finding not only substantially contribute to the extent literature, but also pay attention for policy and decision makers to increase the share of generation RE among Eurasian countries especially nations that dependent to traditional energy. Finally, we use OLS econometrics method and check for robustness standard error tests to avoid heteroscedasticity.

Daniyor Gulomjanov was born on August 5, 2007 in Namangan district, Namangan region.

16 years old, 10th grader of Namangan District Presidential Specialized School

Winner of the “Pride of Education” badge

Awardee of the “For Achievements in Education” badge

He is interested in Geography and History

Geography Olympiad

Title: Microcloning Technique for Seedling Growth in Laboratories

Introduction:
The cultivation of plants through microcloning has gained significant importance due to its numerous advantages over traditional propagation methods. This technique involves the aseptic transfer of somatic cells from a mature plant onto agar plates under controlled conditions to obtain genetically identical clones. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using microcloning techniques to grow seedlings in laboratories.

Materials and Methods:
Five different species of seeds were chosen for the experiment, including lettuce, tomato, cucumber, bean, and pea. Each seed type was grown in soil pots in the greenhouse for two months before harvesting the mature seeds. After drying, the seeds were ground into fine powder using a grinder. A total of ten Petri dishes were prepared with sterile agar medium containing vitamins and nutrients required for cell proliferation. Agar plates were autoclaved to eliminate any contamination before use.

To initiate microcloning, somatic cells were isolated from the crushed seeds by centrifuging them at 8000 rpm for five minutes. Cell pellets were washed with sterile water and resuspended in a suitable buffer solution. Droplets of the suspension were placed onto the surface of the agar medium, followed by incubation at 27°C for 3-4 days. During this period, the cells multiplied rapidly, forming small colonies of cells called explants.

After three days, the explants were transferred to fresh Petri dishes containing appropriate media for further growth and development. The plates were maintained under controlled temperature and humidity conditions to ensure optimal growth. After seven days, the size and color of the explants were observed regularly. At fourteen days, the explants were transferred again to fresh Petri dishes, followed by incubation for another week. Finally, after twenty-one days, the explants were evaluated for morphological characteristics, such as leaf shape and size, stem thickness, and root length.

Results:
The results showed successful growth of seedlings from the microcloned explants. All five species grew successfully in the lab, but there were some differences in the rate of growth and overall health between the seedlings grown from microcloned explants compared to those grown in soil pots in the greenhouse. The explant-grown seedlings had smaller leaves and stems, while their roots were longer than those of soil-grown seedlings. However, the overall health of the plants was comparable, indicating that the microcloning technique was effective in producing healthy seedlings in the lab.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, our study demonstrated the feasibility of using microcloning techniques to produce seedlings in laboratories. While there may be some variations in the morphology and health of the plants, the microcloning technique offers several benefits over traditional propagation methods, including faster and more efficient production of genetically identical clones. Therefore, this technique can have significant implications in agricultural research, plant breeding, and conservation efforts. Further studies should be conducted to optimize the microcloning procedure and investigate its potential applications beyond plant propagation.

Building foundation: Effective strategies for teaching                               English in kindergarten

                                                                                                      Axmadjonova Feruzaxon

                      O`zbekiston Davlat Jahon tillari Universiteti talabasi

             Annotation: The article emphasizes the growing significance of English language proficiency in an interconnected world and highlights the advantages of introducing English education in kindergarten. It underscores the natural language learning abilities of young children and the cognitive, social, and long-term linguistic benefits associated with early exposure to English.

           Keywords: language proficiency, cognitive skills, social skills, language acquisition, visual aids, interactive activities, bilingualism, storytelling

          Аннотация: Статья подчеркивает растущую важность владения английским языком в мире, становящемся все более взаимосвязанным, и выделяет преимущества введения обучения английскому языку в детском саду. Она подчеркивает естественные способности к изучению языка у маленьких детей и приводит когнитивные, социальные и долгосрочные языковые преимущества, связанные с ранним знакомством с английским.

         Ключевые слова:  владение языком, когнитивные навыки, социальные навыки, усвоение языка, визуальные пособия, интерактивные занятия, двуязычие, рассказы

As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the ability to communicate in English is becoming more and more important. Many parents want their children to start learning English as early as possible. This is where teaching English in kindergarten comes in. Teaching English in kindergarten can be a rewarding experience for both teachers and students. It is a great opportunity to introduce children to a new language and help them develop their language skills at an early age. As for the benefits of teaching English in kindergarten are numerous. First and foremost, young children have a natural ability to learn languages. Their brains are wired to absorb new information quickly and easily. This means that if they are exposed to English at a younger age, they are more likely to become proficient in the language later in life.

Additionally, learning English in kindergarten can help children develop important cognitive skills. Learning a new language requires children to use their memory, attention, and problem-solving skills. These skills can then be applied to other areas of their lives, such as math and science. Furthermore, teaching English in kindergarten can help children develop social skills. Learning a new language requires children to communicate with others and work together to understand new concepts. This can help children develop empathy and self-confidence.

Despite these benefits, teaching English in kindergarten also comes with its challenges. One of the biggest challenges is teaching young children requires a different approach than teaching older children or adults. Teachers must be patient, creative, and able to engage children in fun and interactive activities. Another challenge is ensuring that children are not overwhelmed by the new language. Young children have limited attention spans and may become frustrated if they are expected to learn too much too quickly. Teachers must strike a balance between challenging children and keeping them motivated and engaged.

With the right approach and resources, it can be easier to teach foreign languages in early ages. There are numerous tips to teach English for young children. Firstly, using visual aids. Visual aids are an essential tool for teaching English to young learners. Children learn best when they can see and touch things. Using flashcards, pictures, and other visual aids helps children to understand new vocabulary and concepts. Secondly, play games can be a great way. Games are a fun and effective way to teach English. If the games involve movement and interaction, such as Simon Says or Duck, Duck, Goose, it will be easy children to recognize new theme with fun way. Board games and puzzles in teaching vocabulary and grammar structures are also great tip. Moreover, storytelling, song singing is also considered effective way. In conclusion, stressing that with the right approach and resources, teaching foreign languages at an early age can be made easier and more effective.

                                                                 References:

1.Early Language – Peter A.de Villiers and Jill G.de Villiers . Harvard University Press

2.The Bilingual Edge: Why, When, and How to Teach Your Child a Second Language   – Kendall King and Alison Mackey (2007)

3.Raising a Bilingual Child: A Step-by-Step Guide for Parents-  Barbara Zurer Pearson (2008)

4.Teaching Languages to Young Learners – Lynne Cameron (2001)

5. Growing Up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven – Xiao-lei Wang (2008)

Children

We are the bright future  

Of our  independent

Heavenly mother Earth 

We are the diamond stars

Of the ruby field in the sky. 

We are the great happines

Of loving beating hearts,

We are the future children 

Of every loving families. 

We are the only sun

In the east horizon lights 

We are the bright face

Of great ancestors . 


🖋Written by Shaxlo Safarova 



Safarova Shakhlo Nurkamol's daughter was born in 2007 on 14th April in Tashkent the capital of Uzbekistan. She is one of young, gifted and successful Uzbek writers. If we narrate her, we should not pretermit about her first books which are named as '' The sound of my heart '' and ''Colourly emotions '' are published in USE.

In one of the successful year of her life is 2023th year because in that year she nominated The state ''Zulfiya '' price of Uzbekistan and '' The best Top-50 searchers'' badge.

Puritan England New Orleans postmodern authoress Kate Chopin’s The Awakening explores the feminine subjectivity through dichotomies and/or antitheses between the self and society unfolding maternal discourse and self-possession in corresponding light of sensuality, sexuality, autonomy and adultery. Edna Pontellier’s denial to be “reintegrated into the existing order of the bourgeoise patriarchal society […] challenges less a particular institution than the entire organization of society […] the outward existence which conforms and the inward life which questions […]Mrs. Edna Pontellier was beginning to realize her position in the universe as a human being and to recognize her relations as an individual to the world within and about her.”

In her despondent vigils the night before her bereavement, this vivid image comes to her mind, “The children appeared before her like antagonists who had overcome her; who had overpowered her and sought to drag her into the soul’s slavery for the rest of her days. But she knew a way to elude them.” Children loomed in gigantic proportions in her final meditations as slave drivers of her hallucinating mind, analogous to the white slave owners claiming ownership and possession over the bodies of quadroon’s ancestors; despite being ushered to be relocated to Iberville—the suburbs of Edna’s mother-in-law. Mrs. Pontellier, unlike her husband, hadn’t the privilege of quitting the society of Madame Lebrun when they ceased to be entertaining. “She [Mrs. Pontellier] was only a bird in a gilded cage.” Readers perception of caged birds symbolic manifestation embody Edna Pontellier’s domestic enslavement, a reading reinforced by the balladry associated to the wedding of unfortunate dame with the wealthy master with some refrain. Mr. Pontellier was very fond of walking about his house, examining its various appointments and details, possessions he greatly valued, chiefly because they were his own contrasting in juxtapositional effect with Mrs. Edna Pontellier’s approaching the flowers in a familiar spirit and making herself at home with them. This analogy appropriates Edna Pontellier’s choice of her predilections and proclivities. 

“How strange and how awful it seemed to stand naked under the sky! How delicious! She felt like some new-born creature, opening eyes in a familiar world that it had never known.” —-This quotable statements reechoes virginity and baptismal rites of birth of the holy Ghost as anticipated in her farewell from earthly life; as reciprocated in the self-authorized death. In other words, Edna Pontellier’s unfettered physical response to the sensuousness of the familiar world replenishes, renovates and regenerates herself. Dr. Mandelet thus, certifies the testimonial in the medical examination of nothing morbidity state but alleviated in repression from glance or gesture as exhortations point out, “She[Mrs. Pontellier] reminded me of some beautiful, sleek creature waking up in the sun.” However, in the penultimate liberality of the revelatory scene contrasts in juxtapositional effect of the “scene torture” in “with an inward agony, with a flaming outspoken revolt, against the ways of Nature, witnessed the scene torture” Adele Ratignolle’s physical labour of birthing, gestation, maternity and motherhood along with cultural labour of requisite image contextualize the femininity and womanhood. Adele Rontignolle’s speeches: “Think of the children, Edna. Oh, think of the children! Remember them!” the dialogism is precisely the abdicating of dispossession what she does as she evaluates the midnight vigils which follow. .    

“She [Mrs. Edna Pontellier] meant to think of that; that determination had driver into a soul like a death wound—–but not tonight. Tomorrow would be time to think of everything […] There was no human being whom she wanted to be near her except Robert Lebrun; and she even realizes that the day would come when he, too, and the though of him would melt out of her existence, leaving her alone.” Edna Pontellier imagines the fantasy of romance and promiscuous cuckolding to be metamorphoses of ephemerality; re-imagines her struggles for emancipation and freedom, quest for individuality and selfhood and self-empowered fulfillment in a world of traditional roles and values as she is confronted with this dualistic battlefield between motherhood and extra-marital affairs.

Kate Chopin’s autobiographical facetedness of stream of consciousness as a literary technique reveals the gulf experienced by Edna Pontellier’s inner world of private thoughts and rebellious emotions contrasted with outer world of self-censorship and self-containment and/or conformity. Presbyterian janus faced Kentucky stock was exposed to hypocrisy of weekday sins and Sunday repentance. Female passionlessness was hallmark avantgarde of the Victorian cult of true womanhood as reflected by Carol Gilligan’s exposition of feminist phallic power deficiency derivative in “the failure of women to fit the existing models of human growth may point to a problem in the representation, a limitation in conception of the human condition; an omission of certain truths about life.” …motherhood and womanhood…idolized their children, worshipped their husbands, esteemed it a holy privilege to efface themselves as individuals and growing wings as ministering angels.”

To Edna Pontellier bygone heroines of romance and the fair lady of dreams as embodied in the portrayal of Adele Ratignolle. Laissez-faire and free market enterprise or capitalism redeems the concept of femininity and maternity inseparable which exempts inclusion of female desire, autonomy or independent subjectivity. Motherhood imposes womanhood with societal conventions, familial obligations, stifling responsibilities and passive domesticity engendering double alienation resulting in the gulf of the traumatic estrangement from children and between the reality of her individuality and/or subjectivity. 

References

Ivy Schweitzer’s Maternal Discourse and the Romance of Possession in Kate Chopin’s The Awakening, boundary2, Spring 1990, Volume. 17, No. 1, New Americanists: Revisionist Interventions into the Canon, Spring 1990, pp. 158-186